\ .'  '    < 


GIFT  OF 
Thomas    H.    Means 


/C.J(0?u^ 


THE 


PROGRESSIVE  FARMER: 

^   Scientific    Snatise 


ON 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY, 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE; 


PLANTS,    ANIMALS,    MANURES,  AND    SOILS. 


APPLIED  TO 


PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 


BY    J.     A.     NASH, 

rSINCIPAL  or   MOUNT  PLEASANT  INSTITUTE,  INSTRUCTOR   OF  AGRICULTURB  HI 

▲XHERIT  OOLLEOK,  AND  MEMBER   OF  THE   MASSACHUSBTTS   BOARD 

OF    AOKICULTURB. 


NEWYOEK: 

C.  M.  SAXTON,  BARKER  &  CO., 

No.   26  PARK  ROW. 

1861. 


•     c      » 

t  »     » 

•     •       « 


£4^3- 

his 


I^xtintt. 


The  undeniable  fact,  that  some  farmers  are  ad- 
vancing in  their  profession,  while  others  are  retro- 
grading, or  only  stationary,  in  connection  with  the 
author's  belief,  that  study  is  the  cause  of  success 
on  one  hand,  and  the  want  of  it,  of  failure,  on  the 
other,  will  justify  his  choice  of  a  name  for  this  book 
— "  The  Progressive  Farmer." 

As  Agriculture  is  necessarily  a  laborious  employ- 
ment— one  in  which  a  majority  of  mankind  must 
ever  be  engaged,  and  on  which  all  must  depend  for 
a  subsistence — it  is  evident  that  whatever  can  be 
done  to  diminish  its  labors,  to  increase  its  profits,  and 
to  advance  the  intelligence  and  happiness  of  those 
who  practise  it,  ought  to  be  done. 

The  following  pages  are  the  result  of  an  effort  to 
render  science  available  to  practical  farmers,  to  young 
men  desirous  of  qualifying  themselves  for  so  useful 
an  employment,  and  especially  to  the  more  advanced 
classes  in  our  public  schools. 

With  an  earnest  desire  to  contribute  to  the  most 
important  of  all  interests,  and  with  a  hope  that  the 
labor  will  not  have  been  wholly  in  vain,  these  pages 
are  submitted  to  the  public.  J.  A.  N. 

678990 


€nuitn\5. 


CHAPTER  I. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 

»A0t 

Explanation  of  Terms, 

. 

11 

Elements,             .            .  ' 

. 

15 

Tabular  Yiews  Explained, 

. 

20 

Table  of  Elements  and  Compounds, 

22 

Table  of  Salts, 

23 

Explanation  of  Tables,    . 

24 

Chloric  Acid, 

.      30 

Sulphuric  Acid,    . 

30 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

.      31 

Carbonic  Acid,     . 

31 

Silicic  Acid  (Silica),    .  ' 

.      34 

Nitric  Acid, 

^ 

34 

Muriatic  Acid, 

.      35 

Water,      . 

35 

Protoxide  of  Iron,     . 

.      36 

Sesquioxide  of  Iron, 

37 

Oxides  of  Manganese, 

.      38 

Potash,     . 

38 

Soda, 

.      39 

Lime, 

40 

Magnesia, 

41 

Alumina, 

41 

Chloride  of  Sodium, 

.      42 

Sulphuret  of  Iron, 

42 

Sulphuretfed  Hydrogen, 

.      42 

Carburetted  Hydrogen,  . 

43 

Ammonia, 

.     44 

VI 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

GEOLOQY  or  AGRICULTURE 


Form,  Density,  &c.,  of  the  Earth,     . 

Stratified  and  TJnstratified  Rocks, 

Relative  Age  of  Rocks, 

Classification  of  Rocks, 

Origin  of  Soils,  .  ... 

Rocks  and  Minerals, 

Amending  Soils,         .... 

Physical  Constitution  of  Soils,    . 

Chemistry  of  Soils,    .... 

Soils  consist  of  an  Organic  and  Inorganic  Part, 

Organic  Acids  and  their  Salts, 


46 
47 
49 
50 
53 
54 
58 
61 
66 
74 
76 


OHAPTEE  III. 


VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY. 


Germination  of  Seeds, 

Requisites  of  Germination, 

Process  of  Germination, 

B-rowth  of  Plants, 

Growing  Plants  Purify  the  Air, 

Sources  of  Carbon,  &c.,  to  Plants, 

Flowering  and  Seed-Bearing, 

Late  Hoeing  Injurious,    . 

Structure  and  Circulation  of  Plants, 

Decay  and  Products  of  Plants,  . 

Starch,  Sugar,  and  Gum,  Non-Nitrogenous, 

Gluten,  Caseine,  and  Albumen,  Nitrogenous, 

Transformations,        .... 


77 
79 
79 
82 
85 
85 
86 
86 
88 
91 
93 
93 
96 


CONTENTS. 


V4 


CHAPTER   lY. 

ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

Connection  between  Soils,  Plants,  and  Animals,       .            .  98 

Selling  Produce  is  Selling  Soil,  ....  99 

How  to  Prevent  Impoverishment,    ....  100 

Kinds  of  Animals  to  be  Kept,     ....  101 

Greneral  Treatment  of  Animals,         ....  103 

Feeding  of  Animals,        .....  105 

Milk, 127 

Butter,     .......  138 

Cheese,         .  .  ...  .  .  .141 


CHAPTER  V. 

MANURES. 

Eelations  of  Soils  to  Manure, 

.    146 

Relations  of  Crops  to  Manure,    . 

148 

Importance  of  Manures,        .            .     ,     ". 

.    152 

Manures,  Stimulants,  and  Amenders,     . 

153 

Organic  Matter  in  Soils, 

.    154 

Restoring  Organic  Matter  to  Soils, 

155 

Object  of  Mineral  Manures, 

.    156 

Home  Resources  for  Manures,    . 

157 

Manure  the  Farmer's  Mine, 

.    158 

Barn- Yard  Manure,         .... 

159 

Barn-Cellar  Manure, 

.    164 

Pig-Pen  Manure,             .... 

169 

Manure  of  the  Sheep-fold,    . 

171 

Night-Soil,          ..... 

176 

Sink-Drainings,         .            ;            .            • 

.    179 

Composting,         *            .            .            •            . 

179 

Odds  and  Ends,         .            •           . 

183 

VIU 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEK  YI. 

PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

PA«B 

Recapitulation,    .....  191 

Land — Its  Ownership,           ....  192 

Perfection  of  Crop-Growing,      .            ^            .            .  193 
This  not  Attainable,              .            .            .            .            .194 

The  Chemist  can  Analyze^  the  Farmer  Eocamine  Soils,   .  195 

How  to  Estimate  a  Farm,     .            .             .            .            .  196 

Variety  of  Soils — ^Names,            ....  196 

Capabilities  of  a  Farm,                      ....  198 

Density  of  Soils,              .....  201 

Fineness  of  Division,             .            ,            .            .            .  202 

Adhesiveness  of  Soils,     .            .            .            .            .    '  202 

Power  of  Absorbing  Moisture,          .            •            •            .  202 

Containing  Power,          .....  203 

Capillary  Attraction,              .....  204 

Relations  of  Soil  to  the  Atmosphere,      .            .            .  206 

Application  of  Manures,       .....  207' 

Green  Stable  Manure,     .  .  .  .  .210 

Barn- Yard  Manure,  -  .  .  .  .  .211 

Compost,.             .            .  -          .            .            .            .  211 

Hog,  Sink,  and  Chip  Manure,           ....  212 

Night-Soil,  .  .  .  .  .  .213 

Plaster  and  Ashes,    .             .            . '          .            .            .  215 

Deep  Ploughing,              .            .            .            .             .  216 

Hoeing,  Haying,  and  Harvesting,     .           -.            .           '.  221 

Draining,            ......  222 

Reclaiming  Stony  Lands,      .            .            .            .            .  225 

Profits  of  Amending  Soils,          ....  226 

Rotation  of  Crops,     ......  228 

To  Farmers,        .            .            .             .            .            ,  230 

Questions  on  Scientific  ana  Practioel  Agriculture,    .            .  233 


^ntrniiurtinii 


"  To  "  subdue  the  earth,"  to  render  it  fruitful,  and  to  keep  it  so, 
is  the  province  of  Agriculture. 

Creative  Power  has  made  the  earth  capable  of  producing ;  has 
decreed  that  it  shall  produce  something ;  but  has  left  it  for  the 
skill  and  energy  of  man  to  decide,  to  a  considerable  extent,  what 
it  shall  produce,  and  to  determine,  in  some  degree,  how  much. 

In  the  first  place,  the  earth  is  to  he  subdued,  cleared  of  obstruc- 
tions, mellowed,  and  cured  of  its  tendency  to  useless  production. 
In  the  second  place,  useful  productions  are  to  he  installed ;  and 
these  are  to  be  selected  with  an  intelligent  reference  to  soil,  cli- 
mate, and  the  wants  of  the  community.  In  the  third  place,  these 
productions  are  to  he  expended  with  a  wise  regard  to  future  pro- 
ductiveness. Such  of  their  ingredients  as  came  from  the  soil  are 
to  be  returned  to  it,  or  others  of  equal  fertilizing  value  to  be  sub- 
stituted, in  order  that  the  soil  may  be  increasingly  fertile. 

How  best  to  prepare  the  soil — how  to  put  it  to  the  most  pro- 
fitable use — how  to  dispose  of  its  products  advantageously  to 
both  the  soil  and  its  owner,  so  that  w^hile  the  one  shall  increase 
in  fertiUty,  the  other  shall  advance  in  wealth  and  intelligence,  and 
in  moral  and  social  influence,  are  the  questions  of  scientific  agri- 
culture. 

Labor  is  an  important  requisite,  but  not  the  only  requisite  of 
successful  husbandry.  Cultivated  mind,  matured  judgment,  good 
sense  enlightened  by  study  and  experience,  find  no  better  field 
1* 


X  INTEODUCTION". 

on  whicli  to  exert  themselves  than  the  farm.  It  cannot,  indeed, 
be  expected  that  practical  men  will  acquire  a  profound  know- 
ledge of  all  the  sciences  which  throw  light  on  their  path,  for  these 
are  many  and  extensive. 

Chemistry  has  made  immense  strides,  and  has  achieved  the 
most  important  discoveries.  These  must  be  brought  to  bear  in 
favor  of  agriculture.  Geology^  though  of  recent  origin,  has 
already  become  a  great  and  useful  science.  Vegetable  physiology 
is  replete  with  instruction  to  the  farmer.  The  history  of  animals 
affords  an  almost  limitless  field  of  instruction.  Because  those 
who  are,  and  those  who  intend  to  be  practical  farmers,  cannot 
compass  the  whole  of  these  and  other  sciences,  it  does  not  follow 
that  they  should  cull  nothing  from  them. 

There  are  facts,  principles,  and  conclusioi^s  from  all  the  natural 
sciences,  which  can  be  easily  acquired,  and  which  cannot  fail  to 
be  of  the  greatest  service  to  practical  agriculture.  To  state  these 
facts,  to  illustrate  principles,  and  to  apply  conclusions  to  the 
every-day  business  of  the  farmer,  is  the  design  of  the  following 
pages. 

Should  the  first  chapter  appear  to  any  too  difficult  and  not  suf- 
ficiently 'practical^  I  readily  admit  that  it  is  difficult ;  it  is  so  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  subject,  but  it  is  not  impractical.  The 
subject  of  this  chapter  has  important  bearings  on  every  branch 
of  practical  agriculture. 

Succeeding  chapters  will  be  found  more  directly  and  manifestly 
practical — will  have  more  and  more  to  do,  as  we  go  on,  with  the 
every-day  business  of  agriculture,  and  it  is  hoped,  will  become 
increasingly  interesting  and  useful  to  practical  men. 

If  farmers  will  peruse  this  and  similar  works,  and  will  encour- 
age their  sons  to  study  them,  they  will  find  that  "it  pays,"  both 
in  the  increased  pleasure  and  in  the  augmented  profits  of  agricul- 
ture. 


CHAPTER    I. 
AGRICULTURAL    CHEMISTRY 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS. 

i.  A  BODY,  that  is  constituted  of  one  kind  of  matter 
only,  is  called  an  element 

2.  One  that  is  composed  of  two  elements,  is  a  com- 
pound^ and  is  sometimes  called  a  binary  compound^  ioi 
distinguish  it  from  compounds  containing  more  than 
two  elements. 

3.  If  a  body  consist  of  three  elements,  it  is  called  a 
ternary  compound ;  if  of  four,  a  quaternary  compound. 
Binary  implies  two-fold  ;  ternary^  three-fold,  and  qua- 
ternary^ four-fold. 

4.  Thus,  iron  being  constituted  of  but  one  kind  of 
matter,  is  an  element ;  water  being  composed  of  two, 
is  a  binary  compound ;  epsom  salt,  composed  of  three, 
is  a  ternary  compound  ;  and  alum,  of  four,  is  a  quaier* 
nary  compound. 


12  AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY. 

5.  There  are  three  forms  in  which  bodies  may  exist 
— the  gaseous^  the  liquid^  and  the  solid.  A  body  that 
is  elastic,  like  air,  is  called  a  gas  ;  one  that  is  inelastic^ 
like  water,  a  liguid  ;  and  one  in  which  the  particles  dc 
not  readily  move  among  each  other,  as  iron,  wood,"^ 
straw,  feathers,  a  solid, 

6.  Some  bodies  are  capable  of  assuming  all  these 
forms  at  different  temperatures,  as  water,  for  instance, 
is  gaseous  above  212°,  liquid  from  that  down  to  82°, 
and  solid  below  that  point. 

7.  Bodies  which  will  combine  with  each  other  when 
brought  into  contact,  are  said  to  have  an  affinity  for 
each  other ;  those  which  will  not,  are  said  to  have  no 
such  affinity.  Chemical  affinity  is  a  tendency  existing 
between  certain  bodies  to  combine  and  form  com- 
pounds. It  is  of  three  kinds — simple^  single  elective^ 
and  dovhle  elective — simple^  when  two  substances  com- 
bine, no  other  body  being  present,  as  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen, to  form  water ;  single  elective^  when  One  sub- 
stance decomposes  another  to  combine  with  one  of  its 
ingredients,  as  when  vinegar  decomposes  chalk,  com- 
bining with  its  lime,  and  setting  its  acid  free;  and 
double  elective^  when  two  compounds  exchange  partners 
with  each  other. 

8.  We  must  distinguish  between  a  compound  and  a 
mixture.  When  two  substances  combine  of  their  own 
accord,  as  if  self- moved,  the  result  is  a  compound.  If 
they  are  only  put  together  by  mechanical  force,  it  is  a 
rnucture     In  the  first  case,  the  properties  of  the  ingre- 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY.  Vd 

dients  are  entirely  changed ;  in  the  last,  they  remain 
unaltered.  Thus,  if  you  bring  chlorine  and  sodium 
together,  a  substance  totally  unlike  either  is  produced ; 
from  two  virulent  poisons  a  wholesome  condiment  is 
formed — common  salt :  this  is  a  compound.  But  if 
you  put  water  with  milk,  no  new  substance  is  formed 
— the  properties  of  the  ingredients  remain  unaltered ; 
they  are  water  and  milk  still,  and  nothing  more.  This 
is  a  mere  mixture, 

9.  A  substance  that  can  be  dissolved  in  a  liquid  is 
said  to  be  soluble  ;  one  that  cannot,  to  be  insoluble^  as 
sugar,  for  instance,  is  soluble  in  water,  and  sand  inso- 
luble. When  a  substance  is  dissolved,  it  is  called  a 
solution,  as  a  solution  of  sugar,  salt,  or  nitre,  in  water. 
A  distinction  is  also  to  be  made  between  a  solution  and 
a  mixture.  If  you  put  cider  into  water,  this  is  nothing 
more  than  a  mixture  ;  a  color  is  in  this  case  communi- 
cated, whereas,  if  the  cider  were  perfectly  dissolved, 
it  would  leave  the  water  transparent.  If  now  you 
add  a  spoonful  of  salt  to  a  pint  of  water,  the  water 
will  remain  as  transparent  as  before.  This  is  a  solu- 
tion. Any  liquid  which  dissolves  other  substances  is 
called  a  solvent.  Water  is  the  great  solvent  of  those 
salts  which  feed  growing  plants.  These  salts  enter  the 
roots  of  plants  in  the  state  of  transparent,  colorless 
solutions  in  water. 

10.  There  are  different  degrees  of  solubility.  Water 
will  hold  in  solution  but  -^^-^  of  its  own  weight  of 
quicklime;  it  will  hold  in  solution  ji^  of  its  own 
weight    of    gypsum ;   j\  of  its   weight  of  common 


14  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 

salt ;  and  mucb  more  of  some  other  salts.  Several 
substances  are  more  soluble  in  cold  water  than  in  hot. 
.Glauber's  salt,  for  instance,  is  dissolved  to  a  greater 
extent  in  cold,  than  in  hot  water.  Common  salt  has 
the  property  of  being  equally  soluble  in  cold  water 
and  in  hot.  If  you  put  into  11  pounds  of  cold  water 
4  pounds  of  common  salt,  it  will  all  be  dissolved.  K 
3^ou  put  in  more,  all  beyond  4  pounds  will  fall  to  the 
bottom  undissolved.  Precisely  the  same  will  take 
place  if  the  Water  be  hot.  In  either  case  the  water 
will  hold  in  solution  4  lbs.  of  the  salt  to  11  of  its  own 
weight.  Most  substances,  as  is  well  known,  are  dis- 
solved more  readily,  and  in  larger  amounts,  in  hot 
water  than  in  cold. 

11.  It  is  a  general  law  of  chemical  combination,  that 
elements  will  combine  with  elements  only,  and  compounds 
only  ivith  compounds.  According  to  this  law,  a  body 
that  is  constituted  of  one  kind  of  matter  only,  will  com- 
bine with  another  body  similarly  constituted,  but  not 
with  one  that  is  composed  of  two  kinds ;  and  a  body, 
composed  of  two  kinds  of  matter,  will  combine  with 
another  that  is  constituted  similarly,  but  not  with  one 
that  contains  but  one  kind  of  matter. 

12.  All  chemical  combinations  are  in  certain^  definite 
proportions.  Bodies  will  not  combine  in  any  propor- 
tions which  the  chemist  might  prefer,  but  only  in  cer- 
tain proportions,  fixed  in  nature,  and  unalterable.  In 
illustration  of  these  principles,  it  may  be  stated  that  8 
lbs.  of  oxygen,  an  element^  will  combine  with  1  lb.  of 
hydrogen,  another  element,  and  form  9  lbs.  of  water.. 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  16 

Also,  calcium,  an  element,  will  combine  with  the  ele- 
ment, oxygen,  precisely  20  lbs.  of  the  first  to  8  lbs. 
of  the  last,  and  form  28  lbs.  of  quick-lime.  Now,  if 
we  take  these  two  compounds,  water  and  quick-lime, 
9  lbs.  of  the  former  will  combine  with  28  lbs.  of  the 
latter,  and  form  37  lbs.  of  slacked  lime.  It  is  true,  you 
might  put  more  than  9  lbs.  of  water  to  28  lbs.  of  lime, 
but  the  excess  would  soon  evaporate,  leaving  precisely 
9  lbs.  combined  with  the  lime  in  the  form  of  a  dry, 
white  powder,  (water-slacked  lime).  If  you  were  to 
put  less  than  9  lbs.  of  water  to  28  of  lime,  then  only 
a  part  of  the  lime  would  be  slacked ;  and  in  order  to 
slack  the  whole,  you  would  have  to  continue  putting 
on  water  till  you  had  reached  the  9  lbs.,  when  the 
whole  would  be  reduced  to  a  dry,  white  powder.  It 
is  so  with  all  chemical  combinations ;  they  are  always 
in  definite,  fixed  and  unalterable  proportions.  In  this 
respect  they  differ  from  mere  mixtures,  which  may  be 
in  any  proportions. 

ELEMENTS. 

18.  There  are  in  nature  15  simple  substances,  call- 
ed elements,  whicn  make  up  more  than  99  hundredths 
of  tall  known  matter.  Other  substances  exist  in  small 
quantity,  but  these  are  all  that  need  be  noticed  in  an 
introduction  to  agricultural  chemistry.  They  consti- 
tute essentially  all  the  objects  with  which  we  are  con- 
versant. If  we  analyze  a  stone,  a  handful  of  earth, 
a  plant,  a  flower,  a  bone,  a  drop  of  water,  a  piece  of 
flesh,  almost  anything  we  can  think  of,  it  is  found  to 
consist  of  one,  two^  three  or  more  of  these ;  seldom  of 


16  AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY. 

one,  oftener  of  two,  very  often  of  three,  less  frequently 
of  four,  and  rarely  of  more  than  four. 

14.  The  names  of  the  15  elements,  mentioned  above, 
as  constituting  more  than  99  hundredths  of  all  known 
matter,  are  1.  Oxygen ;  2.  Chlorine ;  3.  Sulphur ;  4. 
Phosphorus ;  5.  Carbon  ;  6.  Silicon  ;  7  ;  Nitrogen  ;  8. 
Hydrogen ;  9.  Iron ;  10.  Manganese ;  11.  Potassium ; 
12.  Sodium ;  13.  Calcium ;  14.  Magnesium  ;  15  Alu- 
minum. 

15.  Oxygen  is  a  gas,  colorless,  tasteless,  inodorous; 
not  distinguishable  by  any  of  the  senses  from  common 
atmosphere.  It  constitutes,  as  mixed  with  nitrogen, 
1-5  of  the  air  ;  as  combined  with  hydrogen,  8-9  of 
water;  enters  largely  into  all  plants  and  animals; 
forms  a  part  of  rocks  and  soils;  and  is  supposed  to 
constitute  not  far  from  one  half  of  all  known  matter. 
It  is  the  great  supporter  of  combustion ;  and  it  con- 
stitutes the  respirable  portion  of  the  atmosphere.  No 
fire  can  burn  without  it,  nor  animal  breathe  in  its  ab- 
sence. It  enters  into  combination  with  all  other  ele- 
ments. We  seldom  see  anything,  unless  it  be  the  pre- 
cious metals,  which  is  not  compose*d  in  part  of  this 
substance. 

16.  Chlorine  is  a  yellowish  green  gas,  2^  times 
heavier  than  air,  existing  largely  in  sea-water,  consti- 
tuting more  than  half  of  common  salt,  and  entering  in 
a  slight  degree  into  all  soils,  and  forming  a  part  of  all 
plants.  On  soils  found  by  analysis  to  be  deficient  in 
chlorine,  it  should  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  common 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  17 

Bait;  and  when  we  are  about  to  plant  those  crops, 
which  require  a  large  amount  of  chlorine,  (corn,  pota- 
toes, turnips,)  we  should  apply  salt,  unless  pretty  well 
assured  that  the  soil  is  well  supplied  with  it,  especially 
at  a  great  distance  from  the  sea ;  for  the  risk  of  losing 
on  a  few  bushels  of  salt,  is  less  than  that  of  losing 
on  the  crop  for  the  want  of  it. 

17.  Sulphur  is  a  yellow,  solid  substance,  known  as 
roll  brimstone,  flower  of  sulphur,  and,  in  a  still  finer 
state,  as  milk  of  sulphur.  It  exists,  in  some  parts  of 
the  world,  as  a  considerable  rock  formation.  It  con- 
stitutes a  part  of  all  soils.  The  waters  of  many  springs 
are  impregnated  with  it.  As  certain  portions  of  all 
plants  and  animals  contain  it  in  their  composition,  it 
must  exist  in  the  soil,  from  which  these  derive  their 
nourishment. 

18.  Phosphorus. — A  yellow,  solid  substance,  of  some- 
thing like  the  consistency  of  bee's- wax,  forming  a  part 
of  the  bones  of  all  animals  and  of  the  seeds  of  many 
plants,  diffused  in  small  quantities  through  rocks 
and  soils  of  the  earth  and  through  the  waters  of  the 
ocean. 

19.  Carbon. — Diamond  is  pure  carbon.  Charcoal  is 
pure  carbon,  with  the  exception  of  what  remains  as  ash, 
after  being  burned.  It  exists  in  a  gaseous  state  in  the 
air,  constituting  about  one  part  in  six  thousand  of  the 
entire  atmosphere.  Carbon  forms  a  part  of  all  plants 
and  animals,  and  of  nearly  all  minerals.^ 


18         AGBICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 

20.  Silicon  is  the  basis  of  sand,  flint,  and  quartz. 
It  enters  largely  into  all  soils,  and  constitutes  proba- 
bly about  1-5  of  tbe  solid  globe.  In  its  pure  state  it 
is  a  dark  brown  powder.  Combined  with  oxygen,  it 
forms  the  flinty  stones  so  common  everywhere ;  also 
sand,  which  is  flint  stone  reduced  to  different  degrees 
of  fineness. 

21.  Nitrogen. — A  gas,  tasteless,  colorless,  inodorous, 
and  a  little  lighter  than  common  air.  Mixed  with 
oxygen,  it  constitutes  4-5  of  the  atmosphere.  It  en^ 
ters  into  the  composition  of  all  animals,  and  of  nearly 
all  plants.  It  constitutes,  with  oxygen,  nitric  acid ; 
and  forms  a  part  of  all  those  salts  called  nitrates. 

22.  Hydrogen  is  a  tasteless,  colorless,  inodorous  gas, 
14  times  lighter  than  air,  and  used  on  this  account  for 
filling  balloons.  It  constitutes  1-9  of  water,  and  a 
part  of  all  vegetable  and  animal  substances.  Oxygen 
is  a  supporter  of  combustion  (ca^j^ses  other  bodies  to 
burn) ;  Hydrogen  is  combustible  (burns) ;  Nitrogen  is 
neither  a  supporter  of  combustion  nor  a  combustible. 
Oxygen  is  also  a  supporter  of  respiration,  as  well  as 
of  combustion.  Nitrogen  is  neither.  No  fire  can 
burn  nor  animal  breathe  in  it.  And  though  Hydro- 
gen burns,  yet  it  is  not  a  supporter  of  combustion, 
A  burning  body  is  extinguished  if  immersed  in  it. 

23.  Iron. — A  well-known  metal ;  cheap,  because 
plenty;  but,  beyond  doubt,  the  most  useful  of  all 
metals. 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY,  19 

24.  Manganese. — A  metal  resembling  iron,  but  of  a 
darker  color  and  more  brittle.  It  is  never  found  in 
its  pure  state ;  is  prepared  with  great  difficulty ;  and 
is  in  that  state  of  no  sort  of  use.  It  is  found,  com- 
bined with  oxygen,  in  nearly  all  soils ;  and  from  the 
soil  it  enters  into  plants. 

25.  Potassium. — A  brilliant,  silver- white  metal,  with 
a  high  degree  of  metallic  lustre ;  the  metallic  basis  of 
potash;  burns  with  great  brilliancy  if  thrown  upon 
cold  water,  or  ice  even;  the  lightest  of  all  metals, 
being  about  4-5  as  heavy  as  water. 

26.  Sodium. — A  white,  silvery  metal ;  ihe  metalHo 
basis  of  soda;  burns  if  thrown  upon  warm  water; 
9-10  as  heavy  as  water.  Potassium  and  Sodium  are 
the  only  metals-  known  that  are  lighter  than  water. 

27.  Calcium. — A  yellowish-white  metal,  the  basis 
of  lime.  It  is  from  calcium,  the  metallic  basis  of  linpie, 
that  a  limy  soil  is  called  calcareous. 

28.  Magnesium. — A  white,  shining  metal,  the  basis 
of  calcined  Magnesia. 

29.  Aluminum. — A  metal  in  the  form  of  a  gray 
powder ;  not  easily  melted ;  the  metallic  basis  of  clay 
and  of  clay  soils. 

30.  Of  these  15  elements,  4,  when  in  an  uncombined 
state,  are  gases,  viz.:  Oxygen^  chlorine^  hydrogen^  and 
nitrogen.  The  remaining  eleven  are  solids  at  ordi- 
xjary  temperatures. 


20  AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY. 

31.  Iron  and  manganese  are  metals  proper,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  alkaline  and  earthy  metals. 

32.  Potassium  and  sodium  are  metals  of  alkalies;  cal- 
cium and  magnesium,  of  alkaline  earths ;  and  alumi- 
num, of  the  eai'th^  alumina  (clay). 

33.  Carbon^  hydrogen^  oxygen^  and  nitrogen  are  called 
organic  elements,  because  they  constitute  by  far  the 
larger  part  of  all  organized  substances,  whether  ani- 
mal or  vegetable. 


TABULAR  VIEWS  OF  ELEMENTS,  COMPOUNDS, 
AND  SALTS. 

34.  The  15  elements,  above  described,  will  now  be 
presented  in  tabular  view,  together  with  some  of  the 
more  important  compounds  and  salts  derived  from 
them.     (See  Table  I.) 

35.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  capital  letter, 
or  a  capital  and  a  small  letter,  placed  after  each  ele- 
ment. These  are'  called  symbols.  It  is  little  else  than 
a  short-hand,  and  very  convenient  way  of  writing  the 
words  before  them ;  as  0,  for  Oxygen ;  CI,  for  Chlo- 
rine; S,  for  Sulphur,  &c.  With  three  exceptions, 
these  are  the  initials  of  the  names.  The  exceptions 
are  that  K,  stands  for  Potassium,  Na,  for  Sodium,  and 
Fe,  for  Iron.  It  is  important  that  these  symbols 
should  be  well  fixed  in  the  memory. 

36.  It  will  be  seen  also  that  after  each  symbol  there 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY.  21 

is  a  figure.  These  figures  represent  the  atomic  weight 
of  all  substances.  All  matter  is  believed  to  exist  in 
atomSy  or  indivisible  particles.  The  atom  of  hydro- 
gen, which  is  the  lightest  of  all  bodies,  is  put  down 
at  1.  The  atom  of  oxygen  is  known  to  be  8  times  as 
heavy,  and  is  therefore  put  down  at  8 ;  that  of  chlo- 
rine, for  a  like  reason,  at  36 ;  of  sulphur,  16 ;  phos- 
phorus, 32,  &c.  Now  when  elements  combine  with 
each  other,  they  combine  by  atoms,  one  atom  of  one 
to  one  atom  of  another,  two  atoms  of  one  to  one  atom 
of  the  other ;  and  so  on,  either  1,  2,  3,  4,  6,  6,  or  7  of 
one  to  one  of  the  other ;  or,  as  sometimes  happens,  3 
of  one  to  2  of  the  other.  This  enables  the  chemist  to 
tell  beforehand  precisely  how  much  of  one  substance 
will  combine  with  a  given  quantity  of  another.  If 
you  look  at  nitrogen  in  the  table,  you  will  perceive 
that  the  number  against  it  is  14.  Now  if  you  wished 
to  combine  oxygen  with  14  grs.  of  nitrogen,  it  would 
take  just  8  grs.,  or  just  twice  8  grs.,  or  three,  four, 
five,  six,  seven  times  8  grs.  That  is,  oxygen  will 
^mbine  with  nitrogen  in  the  proportion  of  8,  16,  24, 
32,  40,  48,  or  56  grs.  of  the  former,  to  14  grs.  of  the 
latter,  but  in  no  other  proportions.  So  it  is  with  all 
other  substances ;  they  combine  in  the  proportions  of 
their  own  atomic  weight,  as  expressed  by  figures,  or 
in  the  proportion  of  even  times  these  numbers.  This 
will  be  plainer  as  we  proceed. 

37.  The  compounds  of  oxygen  with  the  elements 
arranged  below  it  (so  many  of  them  as  we  shall  no- 
tice in  this  ^ork)  are  placed  opposite  those  elements 
respectively.      (See  Table  I.)    Other  compounds^  of 


22  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 

tlie  elements  with  eacli  other  are  arranged  below ;  and 
the  figures  after  each  show  from  which  two  elements 
each  comes  ;  while  the  symbols  will  show,  (when  the 
learner  becomes  familiar  with  them),  in  what  propor- 
tion the  elements,  in  each  case,  enter  into  the  com- 
pound. 


TABLE    I. 

ELEMENTS. 

1.  Oxygen,  0,  8.  oxygen  compounds. 

2.  Chlorine,  CI,  36.  1.  Chloric  acid,  ClQs,  76  from  1  and  2. 

3.  Sulphur,  S,  16.  2.  Sulphuric  acid,  SO^,  40  "  1  "  3. 

4.  Phosphorus,  P,  32.  3.  Phosphoric  acid,  PO^,  72    "  1  "  4. 

5.  Carbon,  C,  6.  4.  Carbonic  acid,  C0^  22  "  1  "  5. 

6.  Silicon,  Si,  22.  5.  Silicic  acid,  SiO^,  46  "  1  "  6. 

7.  Nitrogen,  N,  14.  6.  Nitric  acid,  N0«,  54  "  1  «  7. 

8.  Hydrogen,  H,  1.  7.  Water,  HO,  9  a  ^  u  g. 

9.  Iron,- Fe,  28.  8.  Oxides  of  Iron,*  "  1  "  9. 

10.  Manganese,  Mn,  28.  9.  Oxides  of  Manganese,  "     1  "  10. 

11.  Potassium,  K,  39.     10.  Potash,  KO,  47  "     1  "  11. 

12.  Sodium,  Na,  23.       11.  Soda,  NaO,  31  "1  "  12. 

13.  Calcium,  Ca,  20.        12.  Lime,  CaO,  28  "     1  "  13. 

14.  Magnesfum,  Mg,  12. 13.  Magnesia,  MgO,  20  "     1  "  14" 

15.  Aluminum,  Al,  14.    14.  Alumina,  AP03,  52  "     1  "  15. 

15.  Chloride  of  Sodium,  NaCl,  59      from  2  and  12 

16.  Sulphuretof  Iron,  Fe^Ss,  104^  ,       "  3    "      9, 

17.  Sulphuret  of  Hydrogen,  HS,  17         "  3    "      8, 

18.  Light  Carburet  of  Hydrogen,  CH*^,  8       from  5    " 

19.  Heavy  Carburet  of  Hydrogen,  C'^ff,  "  5    "- 

20.  Ammonia,  NH^,  17  "  7    ''     8. 

*  There  are  two  oxides  of  iron,  the  protoxide  and  the  sesqui- 
oxide.  These  are  both  important  in  their  relations  to  agricul- 
ture, and  will  be  explained  fully  in  another  place.  There  are  also 
the  protoxide  and  the  peroxide  of  manganese. 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  28 

TABLE    II. 

SALTS  FORMED  FROM  THE  FOREGOING  COMPOUNDS. 

1.  Chlorate  of  Potash  K  0,  CI  0*,  123,  from  1  and  10. 

2.  Sulphate  of  Iron  (Copperas)  Fe  0,  S  0',  7  H  0,  139,  from  2 

and  8. 

3.  Sulphate  of  Soda  (Glauber  Salt),  Na  0,  S  0',  10  H  0,  161, 

from  2  and  11. 

4.  Sulphate  of  Lime  (Gypsum,  Plaster),  Ca  0,  S  CH*,  2  H  0,  86, 

from  2  and  12. 

5.  Sulphate  of  Magnesia  (Epsom  Salt),  Mg  0,   S  0^  7  H  0, 

123,  from  2  and  13. 

6.  Sulphate  of  Ammonia  (soluble  and  fixed),  from  2  and  20. 

7.  Phosphate  of  Lime  (Bone  Dust),  about  2  parts  lime  to  3  of 

Phos.  acid,  from  3  and  12. 

8.  Super-phosphate  of  Lime,  having  more  acid  and  less  lime 

than  the  last,  from  3  and  12. 

9.  Carbonate  of  Iron  (Spathic  Iron  ore),  Fe  0,  C  O^,  58,  from  4 

and  8. 

10.  Carbonate  of  Potash  (Common  Potash),  K  0,  C  0«,  H  0,  78, 

from  4  and  10. 

11.  Bicarbonate  of  Potash  (Saleratus),  having  twice  as  much  acid 

as  the  last,  from  4  and  10. 

12.  Carbonate  of  Soda  (Washing  Soda),  NaO,  C0«,  10  H  0, 143, 

from  4  and  11. 

13.  Bicarbonate  of  Soda  (Cooking  Soda),  having  twice  as  much 

acid  as  the  last,  from  4  and  11. 

14.  Carbonate  of  Lime  (Chalk,  Limestone),  Ca  0,  C  0*,  50,  from 

4  and  12. 

15.  Carbonate  of  Ammonia  (Volatile  Ammonia  in  its  most  com- 

mon form),  from  4  and  20. 

16.  Silicates  of  Potash,  Soda,  Lime,  Magnesia,  &c.  (in  rocks  and 

soils),  from  5  and  8 — 14. 

17.  Nitrate  of 'Potash  (Nitre,  Saltpetre),  K  0,  N  0»,  101,  from  6 

and  10. 

18.  Nitrate  of  Soda  (Soda-Saltpetre),  Na  0,  N  0^  85,  from  6 

and  11. 

19.  Nitrate  of  Lime  (formed   in   limed  muck-heaps  and  in  old 

plaster),  Ca  0,  N  0»,  82,  from  6  and  12. 

20.  Chloride  of  Lime  (bleaching,  disinfecting,  agricultural),  com- 

posed of  Chloric  acid.  Chlorine,  and  Lime. 


24  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 

38.  In  Table  II.  are  arranged  the  principal  salts 
(salts  having  special  relation  to  agriculture),  which 
are  derived  from  the  compounds,  in  the  second  col- 
umn of  TabJe  I.,  aiTd  from  other  compounds  at  the 
bottom  of  that  table.  The  figures  placed  after  them 
show  from  which  two  compounds  each  salt  is  formed. 


EXPLANATION  OP  THE   POREGOING  TABLES. 

39.  Two  things  are  essential  to  success  in  learning 
chemistry  :  1st,  to  become  able  to  infer  from  the  name 
of  a  substance  what  it  is  composed  of;  and  2nd,  to 
know  how  to  name  a  compound  from  the  names  of  its 
ingredients.  You  would  suppose  that  if  a  chemist 
discovers  a  new  compound,  he  may  call  it  what  he 
pleases.  But  it  is  not  so ;  he  must  give  it  a  name, 
which  will  indicate  its  ingredients,  so  that  others  may 
know,  as  soon  as  they  hear  its  name,  what  it  is  made 
up  of.  Chemists  have  proceeded  on  this  principle  for 
the  last  half  century ;  and  it  is  due  in  no  small  degree 
to  the  excellence  of  their  nomenclature,  that  they 
have  achieved  so  many  and  so  valuable  discoveries. 
It  is  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  nomenclature 
of  chemistry,  that  I  have  introduced  the  foregoing  ta- 
bles. The  reader  will  notice  that  at  the  head  of  the 
table  of  oxygen  compounds,  we  have  six  acids,  each 
named  after  the  element  that  combines  with  oxygen  to 
form  it ;  as  sulphuric  acid,  from  sulphur  and  oxygen ; 
carbonic  acid  from  carbon  and  oxygen ;  and  so  of  the 
others.  Besides  these  six  acids  there  is  another,  which 
has  intimate  relations  to  agriculture,  viz.,  hydrochloi'ic 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 


25 


acid  (H  CI),  composed  of  one  atom  of  chlorine,  36, 
to  one  of  hydrogen,  1,  making  37.  In  English  works 
this  last  is  usually  called  spirit  of  salt ;  in  this  country 
it  is  almost  uniformly  called  muriatic  aac?,iand  will  be  so 
denominated  in  this  work.  We  have  then  seven  min- 
eral acids ;  and  the  reader  will  perceive,  if  he  looks  at 
Table  I.,  near  the  bottom  of  the  oxygen  compounds, 
that  we  have  also  7  oxides,  viz.,  oxide  of  iron,  oxide 
of  manganese,  potash,  soda,  &c.  Now,  in  order  to 
form  those  combinations,  commonly  denominated  salts,' 
one  of  the  foregoing  seven  acids  must  be  combined 
with  one  of  these  oxides.  From  the  fact,  that  the 
oxides  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  salts,  they 
are  called  also  hases.  For  the  purpose  of  aiding  the 
memory,  we  will  here  arrange  these  acids  and  bases, 
together  with  the  generic  names  of  the  salts,  side  by 
side. 


TABLE    III. 


ACIDS. 

BASES* 

SALTS. 

Chloric  Acid, 

Oxide  of  iron, 

Chlorates, 

Sulphuric  Acid, 

Oxide  of  Mn, 

Sulphates, 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

Potash, 

'Phosphates, 

Carbonic  Acid, 

Soda, 

Carbonates, 

Silicic  Acid, 

Lime, 

Silicates, 

Nitric  Acid, 

Magnesia, 

Nitrates, 

Muriatic  Acid, 

Alumina, 

Muriates. 

40.  There  are  other  salts,  formed  in  a  different  man- 
ner ;  as  common  salt,  constituted  of  chlorine  and  sodi- 
2 


26  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 

um,  and  some  others;  but  the  above,  often  called 
oxygen  salts,  as  being  composed  in  part  of  oxygen  (ex- 
cept the  muriates)^  are  all  formed  from  one  of  the  above 
acids,  and  one  of  the  accompanying  bases.  The  name 
is  decided,  by  changing  the  ending  of  the  name  of  the 
acid,  into  ate,  and  then  putting  after  it  the  name  of  the 
base,  with  of  between.  Thus,  if  we  combine  sulphuric 
acid  with  lime,  it  forms  sulphate  of  lime ;  nitric  acid 
with  lime,  forms  nitrate  of  lime;  carbonic  acid  with 
'lime,  carbonate  of  lime ;  carbonic  acid  with  soda,  car- 
bonate of  soda  ;  silicic  acid  with  potash,  silicate  of  pot- 
ash ;  and  so  of  the  others,  each  acid  forming  one  or 
more  salts  with  each  base,  and  the  salt  in  each  case 
taking  the  names  of  both  ingredients.  When  a  second 
salt  is  formed  from  the  same  ingredients,  it  often  takes 
a  double  portion  of  the  acid,  and  then  bi  is  put  before 
the  name,  as  a  prefix.  Thus,  22  parts,  by  weight,  of 
carbonic  acid  with  31  parts  of  soda,  form  cai^bonate  of 
soda  ;  but  44  parts  of  carbonic  acid  to  81  of  soda  form 
bicarbonate  of  soda.  The  first  is  washing  soda  ;  the 
last,  that  kind  of  soda  used  in  cooking.  Sometimes 
the  prefix,  super,  is  used  with  the  same  meaning.  You 
find  the  expressions  bicarbonate^  supercarbonate,  bisul- 
'phate,  superphosphate^  and  the  like,  all  implying  a 
double  dose  of  the  acid. 

41.  There  is  one  thing  that  always  troubles  begin- 
ners in  Chemistry :  it  is  to  distinguish  between  the 
substances  whose  names  end  in  uret,  and  those  whose 
endings  are  in  ate.  This  difiSciilty  should  be  con- 
quered in  the  outset.  Those  substances  whose  names 
end  in  uret,  are  all  the  result  of  an  element  combined 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  27 

with  another  element ;  those  ending  in  afe,  are  in  all 
cases  the  result  of  an  acid  combined  with  an  oxide^  or 
base.  Thus,  if  you  combine  sulphur  (an  element)  with 
iron  (another  elem£nt\  you  have  a  sulphuret  of  iron ; 
but  if  you  first  combine  sulphur  and  iron  with  oxygen, 
to  form  sulphuric  acid  and  oxide  of  iron,  and  then 
combine  these  last  with  each  other,  you  have  a  sulphate 
of  iron.  In  other  words,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and 
carbon,  combined  with  any  of  the  elements  below 
them  in  Table  I.,  form  sulphwrefe,  phosphwrefo,  and  car- 
hurets;  but  if  sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
carbonic  acid  combine  with  any  of  the  bases  below 
them  in  the  second  column  of  that  table,  they  form 
sulphates,  phosphates,  and  carbonates;  and  if  twice 
the  usual  quantity  of  these  acids  are  thus  combined, 
they  form  Z^isulphates,  Z^iphosphates,  and  5^carbonates, 
as  before  explained. 

42.  If  the  learner  is  desirous  of  making  real  pro- 
gress, he  must  master  the  principles  laid  down  in  the 
few  preceding  pages.  This  done  thoroughly,  he  will 
find  little  difficulty.  Let  him  turn  back  and  review 
the  brief  description  of  the  fifteen  elements  before 
given.  Of  these  he  needs  to  have  as  distinct,  definite 
an  idea  as  possible.  Let  him  then  look  at  Table  I.,  and 
question  himself  on  each  of  the  binary  compounds. 
On  the  first,  he  may  inquire  of  what  is  chloric  acid 
composed  ?  The  figures  will  point  him  to  the  two  ele- 
ments, and  the  symbol  will  show  him  in  what  pro- 
portion those  elements  combine  to  form  it.  The  01 
shows  him  that  chlorine  is  one  of  its  elements,  and  the 
0  shows  him  that  oxygen  is  tba  other.     The  atom  of 


28  AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY. 

chlorine,  he  will  see  by  casting  an  eye  at  the  opposite 
colamn,  is  36.  In  the  same  way  he  will  see  that  the 
atom  of  oxygen  is  8.  But  the  small  ^  after  the  0 
shows  that  there  are  5  times  8  of  oxygen  to  36  of 
chlorine ;  that  in  76  lbs.  of  chloric  acid  are  S6  lbs.  of 
chlorine  and  40  lbs.  of  oxygen.  If  he  look  at  the 
second  compound,  he  will  see  that  its  symbol  is  S  0^, 
that  is,  sulphuric  acid  has  one  atom  of  sulphur,  16, 
and  8  of  oxygen,  8  each,  making  24 ;  so  that  40  lbs. 
of  it  would  contain  16  lbs.  of  sulphur  and  24  lbs.  of 
oxygen.  On  coming  to  the  eighth  he  will  find  no 
symbol.  The  reason  is,  that  there  are  several  oxides 
of  iron,  and  they  could  not  all  be  represented  there. 
The  two  which  have  important  relations  to  agriculture 
are  the  protoxide  and  the  sesquioxide.  It  should  be 
explained  here  that  a  pi^otoxide  is  one  in  which  there 
is  but  one  atom  of  oxygen  to  one  of  the  metal ;  a  per- 
oxide, one  in  which  there  is  much  oxygen ;  and  a 
sesquioxide,  one  in  which  there  are  three  atoms  of 
oxygen  to  two  of  the  metal ;  that  is,  a  protoxide  im- 
plies a  low  degree  of  oxygen  ;  a  sesquioxide,  a  higher 
degree ;  a  peroxide,  a  still  higher  degree ;  and  an 
acid,  a  higher  degree  still.  Accordingly,  protoxide  of 
iron  (Fe  0)  implies  one  atom  of  iron,  28,  to  one  of 
oxygen,  8  ;  and  sesquioxide  (Fe''  0')  implies  two  atoms 
of  iron,  28  each,  to  three  of  oxygen,  8  each.  The 
same  is  true  of  manganese.  There  is  the  protoxide  of 
manganese  (Mn  0),  and  the  sesquioxide  (Mn''  0'). 
The  practical  relations  of  these  two  metals,  particu- 
larly of  iron,  will  be  shown  in  another  place,  and  they 
will  be  seen  to  be  very  important  to  the  farmer. 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  2§ 

48.  When  the  learner  has  been  through  with  the 
compounds,  and  ascertained  by  their  symbols  and 
numbers  how  each  one  is  composed,  let  him  turn  to 
Table  11.  and  examine  the  salts  in  the  same  way.  His 
mind  will  thus  insensibly  become  familiar  with  the 
subject.  Let  him  ask  himself,  on  the  first  salt,  of 
what  two  compounds  is  it  made  up  ?  Let  him  trace  it 
back  to  its  two  compounds,  and  then  trace  these  com- 
pounds back  to  their  elements.  Then  let  him  take  the 
second  in  the  same  way.  He  will  find  that  copperas 
contains  36  lbs.  of  protoxide  of  iron  (Fe  O)  to  40  lbs. 
of  sulphuric  acid  (S  0^),  and  that  it  consolidates  in 
itself  63  lbs.  of  water  (7  H  O) ;  that  is,  in  139  lbs.  of 
this  substance  are  36  lbs.  of  protoxide  of  iron,  40  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and  63  of  water.  If  he  look  at  the 
third,  he  will  find  that  sulphate  of  soda  (Glauber's  salt) 
is  made  up  of  soda  (Na  0),  sulphuric  acid  (S  0^), 
and  water  (10  H  O),  31  lbs.  of  the  first  to  40  of  the 
second  and  90  of  the  last,  so  that  in  161  lbs.  of  the 
crystallized  salts  there  are  90  lbs.  of  water.  This,  as 
in  other  similar  cases,  is  called  the  water  of  crystalliza- 
Hon.  If  this  salt  is  exposed  to  the  air,  the  water  of 
crystallization  passes  off,  and  what  was  161  lbs.  of 
crystals  becomes  71  lbs.  of  a  white  powder,  but , pos- 
sesses equal  value  as  before.  The  same  is  true  of  Ep- 
som salt ;  the  water  of  crystallization  passes  off,  and 
leaves  a  white  powder,  much  lighter  than  the  crystals, 
but  of  equal  value. 

44.  In  the  same  way,  if  we  take  up  sulphate  of  lime 
(plaster,  gypsum),  we  find  its  symbol  to  be  Ca  0,  S  0', 
2  H  O.     CaO,  implies  one   atom  of  lime,  28;    SO", 


30  AGKICULTUEAL  CHEMISTRY. 

one  of  sulphuric  acid,  40  ;  and  2  H  O,  two  of  water, 
18  ;  making  86.  If  this  salt  be  heated  to  redness,  the 
water  of  crystallization  is  driven  off,  and  86  lbs.  of  it 
become  68  lbs.  Sixty-eight  pounds  of  burnt  gypsum 
are  of  equal  value,  therefore,  with  86  lbs.  of  ground. 
The  learner,  it  is  presumed,  can  now  go  on,  and  ana- 
lyze for  himself  the  remaining  expressions  for  salts  in 
Table  II.,  satisfying  himself  in  each  case,  what  are  the 
ingredients  of  the  salt ;  whether  it  contains  in  its  crys- 
tallized state  any  water  of  crystallization  ;  and,  if  any, 
how  much.  In  this  way  he  will  learn  the  composition 
,  of  many  substances,  and  be  rendering  himself  familiar 
with  the  language  of  chemistry. 

The  nature  of  these  substances  will  next  claim  our 
attention.  Occasional  applications  will  be  made  to 
agriculture  as  we  pass  along;  but  such  application 
will  be  reserved  mainly  for  another  part  of  this  work. 

COMPOUNDS. 

45.  Chloric  acid  (ClO^,  see  Table  II.)  is  a  violent, 
powerful  acid,  having  so  strong  affinity  for  all  com- 
bustible substances,  that  it  can  hardly  be  preserved  with 
safety. 

46.  Sulphuric  Acid  is  a  compound  of  great  impor- 
tance in  the  arts,  and  is  beginning  to  be  used  exten- 
sively in  agriculture.  If  it  contained  no  water,  we 
should  have  in  40  pounds  of  the  acid  16  lbs.  of  sul- 
phur and  24  lbs.  of  oxygen ;  but  as  it  always  contains 
water,  more  or  less,  these  ingredients  are  of  course 
less  than  16  and  24  lbs.  in  40,  but  are  always  in  that 


AGKICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  81 

proportion  to  each  other.  Its  purity  is  tested  by  its 
weight.  The  more  water  it  contains,  the  lighter  it  is ; 
and  no  one  should  buy  it  for  good,  unless  it  is  once 
and  J  as  heavy  as  water.  It  has  generally  been  re- 
tailed for  121  cents  a  pound,  but  can  now  be  procured 
for  agricultural  purposes  at  2h  cents.  It  is  a  very 
powerful  acid,  and  may  undoubtedly  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  composting  some  manures,  and  especially 
for  dissolving  bones,  to  be  used  as  fertilizers.  It  is 
more  commonly  known  as  oil  of  vitriol 

47.  Phosphoric  Acid  (PO*)  exists  largely  in  the 
bones  of  animals,  and  in  the  phosphate  of  lime,  a  min- 
eral called  appatiiCj  and  is  found  in  all  soils,  not  en- 
tirely exhausted  by  cropping.  How  best  to  restore  it 
to  soils  deprived  of  it  by  bad  management,  so  as  to 
enable  them  to  produce  the  cereals  in  abundance,  will 
be  considered  in  another  place.  It  may  be  obtained 
in  a  pure  state  by  burning  phosphorus  in  oxygen  gas. 
In  this  state  it  gathers  moisture  from  the  air,  and  as- 
sumes the  appearance  of  a  white,  flaky  cloud,  but  is 
readily  absorbed  by  water,  rendering  it  intensely  sour. 

48.  Carbonic  Acid  (CO")  is  made  up  of  1  atom  of 
carbon,  6,  to  2  of  oxygen,  16,  making  its  atomic 
weight  22.  That  is  to  say,  in  22  lbs.  of  carbonic  acid 
are  6  lbs.  of  carbon  and  16  of  oxygen.  This  is  a  gas. 
It  is  1^  times  heavier  than  common  air;  and  conse- 
quently, when  produced  in  large  quantities,  it  falls 
into  low  places,  as  dry  wells,  cellars,  or  cisterns,  de- 
stroying sometimes  the  lives  of  those  who  descend ; 
but,  in  accordance  with  a  general  law  of  gases,  it  soon 


82  AGRICULTUEAL  CHEMISTRY. 

diffuses  itself  and  mingles  equally  with  the  whole 
body  of  the  atmosphere,  forming  on  an  average  about 
1-2500  of  the  whole.  Water  absorbs  it  in  considera- 
ble quantity ;  and  the  more,  if  it  is  compressed,  as  in 
soda  fonts.  We  know  that  plants  are  made  up 
largely  of  carbon ;  in  most  cases  not  less  than  half 
their  weight  consisting  of  this  substance.  This  car- 
bon they  obtain  almost  wholly  from  carbonic  acid, 
which  they  receive  by  their  leaves,  from  the  air  prin- 
cipally, but  in  a  small  part  from  the  soil,  as  it  enters 
their  roots  dissolved  in  water.  The  vegetation  of  the 
globe,  therefore,  is  constantly  abstracting  immense 
amounts  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  enough  to  en- 
tirely deprive  the  whole  atmosphere  of  this  ingredient 
in  a  few  years,  if  there  were  no  re-supply.  But  when 
vegetable  matters  are  burnt,  when  they  are  consumed 
by  animals,  and  when  they  go  to  decay,  their  carbon 
is  returned  again  to  the  air.  If  we  eat  a  piece  of 
bread,  the  carbon  it  contains  combines  with  oxygen 
in  the  lungs,  forming  carbonic  acid,  and  is  thrown 
again  into  circulation  in  the  atmosphere.  So  when 
wood,  charcoal,  pit-coal,  tallow,  oil,  or  any  combusti- 
ble matter,  is  burnt,  the  carbon  they  contain,  and  this 
is  generally  more  than  half  of  the  whole,  combines 
with  oxygen  and  goes  into  the  air,  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonic acid.  Also  when  vegetable  matter  decays,  the 
same  thing  happens.  The  process  is  slower,  but  the 
result  is  the  same,  so  far  as  its  carbon  is  concerned — 
that  combines  with  oxygen  by  the  slow  process  of  de- 
cay, and  goes  again  into  general  circulation,  ready  to 
be  seized  again  by  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  again  to 
be  wrought  into  new  vegetable  forms*    Lime-stone 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  SB 

contains  about  44  lbs.  in  one  hundred  of  carbonic 
acid.  When  this  is  brought  from  the  quirry  and 
burnt  into  quick-lime,  the  carbonic  acid  is  driven  into 
the  air.  This  is  another  source  of  re-supply.  So 
when  coal  is  drawn  from  the  mine,  and  burnt,  its  car- 
bon, long  shut  up  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  is  again 
set  afloat  for  the  use  of  plants.  Many  springs,  as 
those  at  Saratog^  are  throwing  small,  but  constant 
streams  of  carbonic  acid  into  the  air.  Volcanoes  also, 
so  long  as  active,  are  throwing  out  large  quantities  of 
it ;  and  fissures  in  the  earth,  particularly  in  volcanic 
regions,  often  throw  it  out  abundantly,  and  diffuse  it 
through  the  atmosphere.  It  is  true  that  large  amounts 
of  it  are  absorbed  into  the  rivers,  seas,  and  oceans, 
where  it  goes  to  support  marine  vegetation,  to  form 
the  shells  of  fish,  and  to  help  build  immense  coral 
reefs ;  and  some  have  feared  that  the  atmosphere  of 
the  globe  would  ere  long  become  so  exhausted  of  it, 
as  not  to  be  able  to  sustain  a  vegetation  equal  to  the 
growing  wants  of  the  race.  But,  when  we  consider 
the  sources  of  re-supply  above  mentioned,  we  need 
not  be  alarmed;  though  it  must  be  confessed  that 
geology  reveals  a  state  of  vegetation  in  by -gone  pe- 
riods, which  proves  that  the  atmosphere  must  have 
been  more  highly  charged  with  this  food  of  plants 
than  at  present.  The  fact  that  carbonic  acid  is  a  poi- 
sonous gas,  and  that  it  is  always  passing  from  the 
lungs  of  animals,  shows  the  necessity  of  thorough 
ventilation  in  our  rooms ;  and  that  our  cattle  even, 
though  to  be  kept  comfortably  warm,  should  not  be 
enclosed  so  tightly  as  to  be  compelled  to  breathe  over 
their  own  breath. 
2* 


84  AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY. 

Pure  air,  as  we  inhale  it,  contains  about  1-2500  of 
this  gas ;  as  we  exhale  it,  it  contains  1-25,  a  hundred 
times  as  much  as  before;  a  very  good  reason,  but 
only  one  among  many,  why  we  should  not  unnecessa- 
rily subject  ourselves  to  the  process  of  breathing  the 
same  atmosphere',  over  and  over  again — a  good  reason 
also,  why  the  sexton  should  drive  every  particle  of  the 
old  air  out  of  the  church  between  •the  morning  and 
afternoon  service,  and  why  the  teacher  should  venti- 
late thoroughly  at  noon  and  at  the  forenoon  and  after- 
noon recess,  if  not  oftener. 

49.  Silicic  Acid  (SiO')  is  nothing  else  than  sand, 
quartz,  flint-stone,  commonly  caled  Sihca.  A  soil  in 
which  it  abounds  is  called  Silicious.  It  is  composed  of 
1  atom  of  Silica,  22,  to  3  of  Oxygen,  24,  forty-six 
pounds  of  it  containing  22  lbs.  Silicon,  and  24  of  Oxy- 
gen. It  exists  in  the  soil  in  two  conditions,  soluble  and 
insoluble.  When  soluble,  it  is  taken  up  by  plants,  and 
forms  the  stiffening  of  stems,  straw,  husks,  &c.  One 
office  of  manures,  and  especially  of  potash,  soda  and 
other  alkalies,  is  to  render  a  portion  of  the  sand  in  the 
soil  soluble,  so  that  it  may  be  available  to  plants. 
Soluble  silica  is  essential  to  the  perfection  of  most 
plants.  Oats,  grown  on  peat,  for  instance,  will  not  ma- 
ture straw  sufficiently  to  support  the  grain.  Nearly 
all  soils,  with  the  exception  of  peat,  contain  from  60  to 
90  per  cent,  of  silica. 

50.  Mtric  Acid  (NO')  is  composed  of  14  lbs. 
of  Nitrogen  to  40  of  Oxygen.  It  is  a  very  powerful 
p,cid,  known  more  commonly  at  the  shops  as  aquafor- 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  85 

tis.  The  salts  formed  by  nitric  acid  are  easily  soluble. 
Hence  they  are  uncommonly  quick  in  their  operation 
on  plants.  The  Chinese  gardener  understands  that  by 
means  of  old  plastering,  which  contains  much  nitrate 
of  lime,  he  can  force  the  growth  of  vegetables  almost 
at  pleasure,  and  cause  an  immense  produce.  In  our 
country,  such  old  plastering  is  too  often  thrown  away. 

51.  Muriatic  Acid  (HCl)  is  1  atom  of  Chlorine, 
to  1  of  Hydrogen.  Thirty -seven  lbs.  of  it  would  give 
36  lbs.  of  chlorine  and  one  of  hydrogen.  It  was  for- 
merly called  Spirits  of  Salt.  Its  more  appropriate  name 
is  Hydrochloric  acid,  because  this  name  indicates  the 
materials  of  which  it  is  composed.  But  it  is  more  com- 
monly known  in  England  as  Spirit  of  Salt,  and  in  this 
country  as  Muriatic  acid. 

52.  Water  (HO)  is  composed  of  i  atom  of  Hy- 
drogen, to  1  of  Oxygen.  Could  you  decompose  a  pint 
of  water,  it  would  give  1000  pints  of  Oxygen,  and 
2000  of  Hydrogen.  The  Oxygen  would  weigh  just  8 
times  as  much  as  the  Hydrogen,  showing  it  to  be  just 
16  times  as  heavy,  by  equal  bulks.  If  now  you  should 
mix  the  two  together,  they  would  condense  into  2000 
pints ;  and  if  you  then  send  an  electric  spark  through 
them,  they  will  combine  into  Ipint  of  water.  Conse- 
quently you  perceive,  that  water  must  be  just  1000 
times  heavier  than  Oxygen,  and  just  2000  times 
heavier  than  Hydrogen.  Hydrogen  is  16i  tiipes  lighter 
than  Oxygen  and  14  times  lighter  than  air,  being,  as 
before  stated,  the  lightest  of  all  known  substances. 

This  is  a  well-known  substance,  and  yet  much  is 


Qb  AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY. 

to  be  learned  of  its  various  and  vastly  important  offi- 
ces in  agriculture.  We  will  enlarge  on  this  subject  at 
another  time. 

53.  Protoxide  of  Iron  (FeO)  is  a  compound  existing 
abundantly  in  many  wet,  marshy  soils.  It  is  largely 
soluble  in  water,  and  when  so  dissolved  is  injurious  to 
vegetation,  often  preventing  the  growth  of  any  thing 
save  a  little  wiry,  sour  grass,  which  contains  little  or  no 
nourishment.  If  such  land  be  thoroughly  drained,  a 
large  proportion  of  this  oxide  is  taken  off  with  the 
water;  and  what  remains  may  be  neutralized  by 
ploughing  and  thus  exposing  it  to  the  air ;  it  takes  an- 
other dose  of  oxygen,  and  becomes  the  red  oxide  or 
sesquioxide  of  iron,  which  is  rather  beneficial  than 
hurtful  td  plants.  The  farmer  may  generally  know 
whether  his  low  lands  are  troubled  with  the  protoxide 
of  iron,  by  observing  the  water  which  flows  from  them. 
If  impregnated  with  this  oxide,  it  will  generally  show 
a  film  on  its  surface,  often  reflecting  the  colors  of  the 
rainbow.  If  this  film  be  very  thin,  it  reflects  the  yel- 
low ray  ;  if  a  little  thicker,  the  red  or  brown ;  and  if 
still  thicker,  the  blue  or  violet.  All  these  colors  are 
sometimes  reflected  from  neighboring  points  on  the 
surface,  which  gives  a  sort  of  iris,  or  rainbow  cast. 
The  explanation  is  thus  : — the  protoxide  of  iron  comes 
from  the  ground  dissolved  in  water.  On  exposure  to 
the  air,  it  takes  more  oxygen  and  becomes  the  red  or 
sesquioxide.  This  not  being  soluble  in  water,  floats 
awhile  on  the  surface,  forming  a  film,  varying  in  thick- 
ness, and,  as  before  explained,  in  color,  till  at  length 
it  sinks  to  the  bottom,  giving  the  channel  a  soft  of 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  87 

yellowisli-red  appearance.  Where  these  indications 
are  presented,  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  drained 
in  the  first  place  ;  next,  the  soil  should  be  turned  up 
to  the  sun  and  air.  Lime  should  then  be  applied  if 
it  can  be  obtained  at  a  moderate  price,  say  20  or  25 
cents  a  bushel ;  if  not,  ashes  will  do  very  well,  but 
should  by  no  means  be  applied  till  the  land  has  becoine 
dry.  Leached  ashes  for  such  a  purjDose,  are  worth 
probably  somewhat  more  than  half  as  much  as  un- 
leached.  K  the  ashes  were  to  be  applied  before  the 
water  is  removed,  the  leached  would  be  just  about  as 
valuable  as  the  unleached.  Neither  would  be  worth 
much.  The  potash  and  soda  in  the  ashes  would  dis- 
solve and  ran  away  with  the  water,  and  the  lime,  of 
which  ashes  contain  some  75  per  cent.,  would  lie  dor- 
mant in  the  soil. 

54.  Sesquioxide  of  Iron  (Fe'O^)  is  composed  of 
the  same  ingredients  as  the  last,  but  contains,  as  the 
symbols  show,  a  larger  proportion  of  oxygen.  The  last, 
as  before  stated,  changes  into  this,  when  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  scales  and  dust  abqut  the  blacksmith's  anvil 
are  a  mixture  of  those  two  oxides.  These  are  a  good 
dressing  for  fruit  trees,  but  should  be  applied  to  the 
surface,  instead  of  being  dug  in,  in  order  that  the 
black  oxide  may  be  exposed  to  the  air,  and  thus  have 
an  opportunity  of  being  converted  into  the  red,  or  ses- 
quioxide. It  is  this  last  oxide  that  gives  to  many  soils 
their  reddish  brown  color ;  and  it  is  one  or  the  other  or 
both  of  these  oxides  of  iron  that  give  to  so  many  sub- 
soils their  sickly  yellow.  Such  subsoils  are  both  cold 
and  poisonoiLs  to  plants ;  but  they  need  only  to  be  turn- 


38  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 

ed  up  to  the  sun  and  air,  and  properly  manured,  to 
become  warm,  healthy,  and  productive. 

55.  Oxides  of  Manganese. — These,  like  the  oxides  of 
iron,  are  numerous.  Two — ^the  protoxide  (M.nO)  and 
the  sesquioxide  (Mn'^O^) — are  constituted  similarly  to 
the  above  oxides  of  iron.  These  are  of  little  conse- 
quence to  agriculture,  and  will  not  be  spoken  of  again 
in  this  work.  There  is,  however,  another,  which  is  of 
some  importance  to  agriculture.  It  is  the  peroxide^ 
or,  as  more  commonly  called,  the  hlack  oxide  of  man- 
ganese (MnO^),  containing,  as  its  symbol  imports,  one 
atom  of  manganese  to  two  of  oxygen.  This  exists  in 
great  abundance  at  Bennington,  Yt.,  and  at  many  other 
localities.  It  exists  in  small  quantities  in  most  rocks, 
and  is  slightly  diffused  through  nearly  all  soils.  It  is 
found  also  in  the  ashes  of  most  cultivated  plants. 

56.  Potash^  called  by  most  writers  potassa,  (KO),  is 
not  the  common  potash  of  the  shops,  used  for  soap- 
boiling,  but  a  far  more  bitter,  acrid,  caustic  substance. 
It  is  seen  at  the  apothecaries  in  the  form  of  small, 
white  rolls,  not  much  larger  than  a  pipe-stem,  enclosed 
in  vials  air-tight,  to  prevent  its  taking  carbonic  acid 
from  the  air,  and  being  turned  to  a  carbonate  of  potash. 
Its  caustic  (burning)  power  is  very  great,  so  that  it 
will  readily  dissolve  horns,  hoofs,  bones,  flesh,  almost 
any  animal  matter.  In  order  to  form  a  correct  idea 
of  potash  in  all  its  changes,  the  learner  must  think 
first  of  a  white,  shining  metal,  like  silver,  so  soft  that 
you  can  cut  it  easily  with  a  knife,  and  so  light  that  it 
will  float  on  water,  almost  instantly  taking  fire,  and 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  39 

burning  brilliantly  as  it  touches  cold  water  or  ice  even. 
This  is  potassium  (K).  Now,  if  8  parts,  by  weight,  of 
oxygen  be  combined  with  39  parts  of  this  metallic  po- 
tassium, we  have  caustic  potash  (KO),  the  intensely 
bitter,  burning  substance  of  which  I  have  been  speak- 
ing. If,  then,  37  parts,  by  weight,  of  this  caustic 
potash  (KO)  be  combined  with  22  of  carbonic  acid 
(CO'),  we  shall  have  the  common  carbonate  of  potash 
of  commerce  (KO,  CO').  As  found  at  stores,  it  is 
generally  very  impure.  If  now  we  take  the  dingy, 
gray  potash  of  commerce,  purify  it  of  its  foreign  mix- 
tures, and  treat  it  to  another  dose  of  carbonic  acid, 
we  shall  have  saleratus,  hicarhonate  of  potash  (KO, 
2C0').  Besides  various  other  forms,  we  have  then  these 
four,  in  which  potassium  is  exceedingly  useful  in  the 
sciences,  arts,  and  common  affairs  of  life — viz.,  metallic 
potassium  (K),  caustic  potash  (KO),  carbonate  of  potash 
(KO,  CO'),  and  bicarbonate  (KO,  2C0').  In  the  form 
of '  common  carbonate  of  potash  only  is  it  used 
for  agricultural  purposes.  It  is  in  this  form  that  it 
exists  in  ashes.  Ordinary  wood  ashes  contain  about 
6  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  potash,  some  2  per  cent, 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  about  75  per  cent,  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  farmers, 
who  sell  their  ashes  at  the  price  generally  paid  by 
soap-boilers,  and  those  who  do  not  buy  at  these  prices 
when  they  have  an  opportunity,  commit  a  "  mistake." 

57.  Soda  (NaO). — This  is  caustic  soda,  consisting 
of  sodium  (Na),  and  oxygen  (0).  In  this  form  it  is 
useful  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  but  is  seldom  seen  or 
known  in  domestic  concerns.     Similar  remarks  apply 


40  AGRICULTU.^AL   CHEMISTRY. 

here  as  to  potash.  We  have  first  metallic  sodium  (Na), 
a  yellowish-white,  shining  metal,  lighter  than  water, 
soft  enough  to  be  cut  with  a  knife,  that  takes  fire 
in  warm  water.  Next,  we  have  this  metal,  combined 
with  oxygen  only,  soda,  or  oxide  of  sodium  (NaO) ; 
then  we  have  carbonate  of  soda,  (washing  soda), 
(NaO,  CO") ;  and  then  bicarbonate  of  soda,  (cooking 
soda),  (NaO,  200^).  I  have  not  noticed  the  water 
(HO)  in  the  foregoing  combinations.  The  reader  will 
perceive  how  much  of  it  is  consolidated  in  them  by 
looking  at  Table  II.  It  is  in  the  form  of  carbonate  of 
soda  (NaO,  CO^),  or  (NaO,  C0^  lOHO),  if  we  no- 
tice the  water,  that  this  substance  is  applied  to  soils. 
In  this  form  it  is  used  considerably  in  England,  and 
is  beginning  to  be  used  in  this  country.  An  im- 
pure kind  of  it  is  sold  in  the  market  as  soda-ash.  It 
is  obtained  from  the  ashes  of  sea- weeds. 

58.  Lime  (CaO). — This  is  an  oxide  of  calcium.  It 
is  lime  as  it  comes  from  the  kiln,  before  exposed  to 
air.  Lime  in  the  quarry  is  the  same  substance,  com- 
bined with  carbonic  acid.  On  being  slacked  it  com- 
bines with  water,  1  atom  of  water,  9,  to  1  atom  of  lime, 
28,  making  37  for  the  atom  of  hydrate  of  lime.  Thus 
28  lbs.  of  quick-lime  make  37  lbs.  of  dry  slacked  lime. 
Or  if  left  after  being  taken  from  the  kiln,  exposed  to 
the  air,  it  first  absorbs  moisture,  then  crumbles  to 
powder,  and  in  a  few  days  takes  carbonic  acid  from 
the  air,  and  becomes  carbonate  of  lime  (air  slacked), 
just  what  it  was  in  the  quarry,  except  in  structure.  In 
tracing  the  metal,  calcium,  through  some  of  its  combi- 
nations, we  have  a  course  similar  to  those  under  pot- 


9> 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  41 

ash  and  soda;  first,  we  find  metallic  calcium  (Ca); 
next,  this,  combined  with  oxygen  only,  lime  (oxide  of 
calcium),  (CaO),  (whick  is  quick-lime,  as  it  comes 
fresh  from  the  kiln) ;  we  have  also  carbonate  of  lime 
(CaO,  CO') — marble,  limestone,  chalk,  and  some 
varieties  of  marl ;  also  the  shells  of  insects  and  fish, 
are  different  forms  of  carbonate  of  lime,  more  or  less 
impure.  When  lime  combines  with  water,  (consoli- 
dates water  in  itself,  so  as  to  be  still  apparently  dry), 
it  is  called  hydrate  of  lime.  Such  is  the  condition  of 
water-slacked  lime.  SiiBh  also  is  the  condition  of 
many  iron  ores  and  other  minerals.  They  consolidate 
in  themselves  large  amounts  of  water,  and  yet  are  ap- 
parently dry.  Such  are  called  hydrates^  as  hydrate 
of  lime,  hydrate  of  iron,  and  others.  From  some  hy- 
drates the  water  is  separated  by  a  gentle  heat ;  from 
others  it  cannot  be  driven  off  but  by  a  very  high 
heat. 

59.  Magnesia  (MgO).  This  is  the  oxide  of  mag- 
nesium. It  is  known  as  calcined  magnesia.  Some 
impure  lime-stones,  as  those  called  dollomite  in  Berk- 
shire county,  Mass.,  contain  large  quantities  of  carbon- 
ate of  magnesia,  in  some  cases  not  less  than  40  per 
cent.  This  is  often  called  magnesian  lime-stone.  If 
the  carbonic  acid  be  driven  off  by  heat,  a  light,  dry, 
white  powder  remains.     This  is  calcined  magnesia. 

60.  Alumina  (Al'O''),  as  its  name  imports,  is  a 
compound  of  aluminum  and  oxygen,  two  atoms  of  the 
former  to  three  of  the  latter.  Alumina  is  a  perfectly 
white  powder,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  clay  soils.     Pure 


42  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY. 

clay  is  a  silicate  of  alumina,  composed  of  about  60  per 
cent,  of  silica,  and  40  of  alumina. 

61.  Chloride  of  Sodium  (NaCl)  is  composed  of 
one  atom  of  chlorine,  36,  to  one  of  sodium,  23.  (See 
Table  I.)  It  is  no  other  than  common  salt.  As  corn, 
potatoes,  and  turnips  contain  large  amounts  of  both 
its  ingredients,  it  would  seem  hardly  possible  but  that 
it  should  prove  beneficial  to  these  crops,  especially  on 
lands  where  either  of  them  have  been  raised  so  long 
as  to  have  exhausted  the  soil  of  the  chlorine  and  so- 
dium origmally  contained  in  it. 

62.  Sulphuretoflron  (Table  IL,  16). — There  are  three 
combinations  of  sulphuret  and  iron. 

1st.  The  protosulphuret  of  iron  (FeS),  consisting 
of  one  atom  of  iron  (Fe)  to  one  of  surphur  (S). 

2nd.  The  sesquisulphuret  (Fe^'S^),  consisting  of  two 
atoms  of  iron  to  three  of  sulphur. 

3rd.  The  bisulphuret  (FeS^*),  consisting  of  one 
atom  of  iron  to  two  of  sulphur.  This  last  is  often 
called  fool's  gold,  from  its  strong  resemblance  to  that 
metal. 

63.  Sulphuret  of  Hydrogen^  or  sulphuretted  Hydro- 
gen (HS),  is  a  combination  of  one  atom  of  sulphur, 
16,  to  one  of  hydrogen,  1,  making  the  atom  of  the 
compound  17.  The  nitrogenous,  or  azotized  parts  of 
plants  and  animals,  contain  a  little  sulphur  and  a  very 
little  phosphorus.  When  those,  substances  which  con- 
tain sulphur,  as  wool,  hair,  horns,  hoofs,  and  eggs,  de« 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  4j 

cay,  it"  very  often  happens  that  an  atom  of  the  sulphur 
combines  with  one  of  hydrogen,  and  forms  this  gas. 
It  may  be  recognized  in  the  smell  of  rotten  eggs,  also 
about  the  docks  in  cities,  and  frequently  in  sinks. 
This  gas  is  exceedingly  unhealthy,  as  well  as  very  op- 
pressive, ^and  it  should  never  be  tolerated  about  our 
buildings.  The  matter  which  gathers  about  the  out- 
let of  the  sink  should  be  frequently  removed,  or 
should  be  so  diluted  with  peat  or  loam,  with  the  ad 
dition  of  a  little  plaster  or  chloride  of  lime,  as  to  give 
off  no  offensive  odor,  as  this  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
is  very  apt  to  be  generatedin  such  places,  and  to  op- 
erate injuriously  on  the  health  of  families. 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  formed  in  well-manured 
soils,  and  it  is  probably  from  this  that  plants  obtain 
in  part'  the  sulphur,  which  they  require  in  order  per- 
fectly to  develop  their  seeds.  It  is  a  gas ;  but  it  read- 
ily dissolves  in  water ;  in  which  form  (that  of  a  lim- 
pid solution)  it  may  enter  the  roots  of  plants. 

64.  Carhuret  of  Hydrogen  (CH'  and  Q'W)  is  of 
two  kinds.  (See  Table  I.,  18.)  Light  carburetted  hy- 
drogen is  composed,  as  its  symbol  imports,  of  carbon 
one  atom,  hydrogen  two.  This  is  the  gas  which  often 
forms  bubbles  on  the  surface  of  stagnant  water.  It  is 
inflammable.  If  you  thrust  down  a  pole  into  the  bot- 
tom of  water  in  which  vegetable  matter  is  decaying, 
bubbles  will  rise  and  float  on  the  surface.  These  will 
burn  with  a  gentle  explosion  and  a  whitish  flame,  if  a 
torch  be  applied.  This  same  gas  is  generated  in  richly 
manured  soils,  and  probably  it  has  something  to  do 
with  furnishing  plants  with  a  small  part  of  their  food. 


44  AtiRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRF. 

Heavy  carburetted  hydrogen   (C^H')  is  the  gas  used 

for  lighting.  It  contains,  as  shown  by  its  symbol, 
just  twice  as  much  carbon  as  the  other,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  it  gives  a  much  stronger  light. 
Heavy  carburetted  hydrogen  may  be  obtained  from 
almost  any  substance  that  contains  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen, as  coal,  oil,  bark  of  trees,  meats  of  nuts,  &c.,  by 
heating  it,  with  exclusion  of  air.  If  you  put  a  walnut 
meat  into  the  bowl  of  a  tobacco  pipe,  cover  it  over 
with  clay,  and  then  thrust  it  into  the  fire,  with  the 
stem  projecting  "upwards,  this  gas  will  soon  issue  from 
the  stem.  If  you  light  it  with  a  candle,  you  will 
have  a  good  sample  of  a  gas-light  in  a  small  way. 

65.  Ammonia  (NH")  is  composed  of  one  atom  of 
nitrogen,  14,  to  3  of  hydrogen,  1  each,  making  17. 
Consequently  17  lbs.  of  ammonia  contain  14  lbs.  of 
nitrogen  and  3  of  hydrogen.  The  peculiar  odor  of 
this  compound  may  be  recognized  in  the  hartshorn 
of  the  shops,  when  used  with  quick -lime  in  the  pre- 
paration of  smelling  bottles.  It  is  generated  where- 
ever  animal  matter  is  undergoing  decomposition ;  and 
if  left  to  its  own  course  it  quickly  combines  with  car- 
bonic acid,  forming  a  volatile  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
and  passes  off  into  the  air,  to  be  blown  about  by  the 
winds,  and  at  length  to  be  intercepted  and  brought 
back  to  the  earth  in  the  falling  rains.  In  this  way  it 
is  made  to  contribute  as  much  to  the  growth  of  the 
useless  as  of  the  useful  plants ;  for  the  rain,  charged 
with  this  ammonia,  falls  as  much  on  the  wild  moun- 
tain as  on  the  cultivated  plain.  There  are  various 
easy  and  cheap  modes  of  preventing  its  escape,  which 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY.  45 

will  be  explained  in  another  part  of  this  work,  in  con- 
nection with  the  use  of  fertilizers,  the  composting  of 
manures,  the  husbanding  of  resources  for  the  growth 
of  plants,  and  other  topics  of  practical  agriculture. 

A  brief  description  has  now  been  given  of  the  15 
elements^  which,  in, their  various  combinations,  con- 
stitute neaply  the  whole  of  all  known  matter.  (Ta- 
ble L,  1st  column,  1-15.) 

A  very  imperfect  (because  too  short)  account  has 
been  given  also  of  20  important  compounds  derived 
from  those  15  elements.  (Table  II.,  2nd  column,  and 
below  1-20.) 

Of  the  formation  of  salts^  by  the  combination  of 
acids  with  bases  (see  Table  III.),  something  has  been 
said. 

A  consideration  of  the  nature  of  salts,  and  of  their 
use  in  agriculture,  will  be  reserved  for  another  place. 


CHAPTEE   II. 
GEOLOGY   OF   AGRICULTURE 


FORM  OF  THE  EARTH— ITS  DENSITY— PROPOR- 
TION OF  LAND  AND  WATER— INEQUALITY  OF 
SURFACE— WEIGHT  OF  ATMOSPHERE— CRUST 
OF  THE  EARTH. 


66.  The  earth  has  the  form  of  an  oblate  spheroid, 
having  an  equatorial  diameter  26  miles  greater  than 
its  polar  diameter.  As  this  is  the  form,  very  nearly, 
which  a  fluid  body  would  naturally  assume,  if  revolv- 
ing on  its  axis  at  the  same  rate,  a  fair  inference  is, 
that  the  earth  was  once  in  a  fluid  state.  Its  average 
weight  is  about  5  times  that  of  water,  and  not  far 
from  twice  and  a  half  that  of  common  rock. 

67.  About  one  fourth  of  the  earth's  surface  is  drv 
land,  and  three  fourths  are  water.  The  land  occupies 
not  far  from  50  million  square  miles,  and  the  water 
about  150  million.  The  highest  peaks  of  dry  land  are 
nearly  six  miles  above  tide  water,  and  the  lowest 
depths  of  the  oceans  are  probably  somewhat  farther 
below.     These  inequalities  affect  the  roundness  of  the 


GEOLOGY   OF  AGEICULTURE.  47 

earth  about  as  mucb  as  the  smallest  dust  would  that 
of  an  artificial  globe.  The  average  height  of  the  land 
is  probably  a  little  less,  and  the. average  depth  of  the 
ocean  a  little  more,  than  two  miles. 

68.  The  crust  of  the  earth,  thinner  comparatively^ 
there  is  reason  to  believe,  than  the  shell  of  an  Qgg^ 
though  certainly  many  miles  in  thickness,  is  solid 
rock,  covered,  three-fourths,  as  before  stated,  with 
water,  and  the  remaining  fourth,  with  broken  rocks, 
stones,  rounded  pebbles,  gravel,  sand,  and  clay,  to  a 
depth  of  from  a  few  inches  to  a  few  hundred  feet ;  the 
whole  sustaining  an  atmosphere  supposed  to  be  about 
45  miles  in  height,  and  known  to  weigh  just  about  15 
pounds  to  each  square  inch  of  the  earth's  surface. 
The  weight  of  air  over  each  square  foot  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  2160  pounds ;  and  the  weight  of  the  whole 
atmosphere  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  covering  of 
water  over  the  entire  globe  84  feet  deep.  This  is 
known  from  the  action  of  a  common  suction  pump,  in 
which  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  just  balances  a 
column  of  water  34  feet  high. 

STRATIFIED  AND  UNSTRATIPIED  ROCKS. 

69.  Almost  every  one  must  have  noticed  that  some 
rocks,  as  they  appear  in  various  situations  exposed  to 
the  eye,  are  formed  into  regular  layers,  or  beds,  rest- 
ing one  upon  another.  These  layers  are  called  strata, 
and  the  rocks  that  exhibit  them  are  said  to  be  strati- 
fied. Other  rocks  present  no  such  appearance  of 
9traiificati:,i> — no  regular  layers  one  itpon  another,  and 


48  GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.       ^ 

are  therefore  said  to  be  unstratified.  The  proof  is  very 
complete,  though  it  cannot  be  given  here,  that  the  "un- 
stratified rocks  were  formed  by  fire,  and  that  they 
took  the  form  in  which  they  appear  by  cooling  off 
after  being  intensely  heated.  For  this  reason  geolo- 
gists have  called  them  igneous  rocks ;  and,  because 
some  portions  of  them  have  a  crystallized  appearance, 
they  are  often  called  crystalline  rocks.  We  have  then 
a  class  of  rocks  called  indifferently  unstratified^  igneous^ 
and  sometimes  crystalline^  rocks,  whose  origin  evi- 
dently was  by  fire. 

70.  It  is,  perhaps,  equally  well  proved,  and  is,  be- 
sides, a  dictate  of  common  sense,  that  the  stratified 
rocks  must  have  received  their  present  form  by  depo- 
sition from  water.  For  this  reason  they  are  often 
called  aqueous  rocks,  and  because  most  of  them  con- 
tain fossil  remains  of  plants  and  animals,  they  are  also 
called  fossiliferous  rocks. 

71.  If  you  were  to  see,  on  a  steamboat,  a  row  of 
huge  casks,  then  above  them  a  row  of  boxes,  above 
these  a  row  of  bags,  and  above  all,  baskets,  bundles, 
and  umbrellas,  you  would  have  no  hesitation  in 
deciding  which  had  been  put  there  first.  No  one 
would  dream  that  the  pile  had  been  commenced  at  the 
top  and  built  downwards.  The  casks  must  have  been 
rolled  in  first,  the  boxes  placed  on  them,  then  the  bags, 
and  last  of  all  the  lighter  matters.  Equally  clear  are 
the  reasonings  of  geologists.  The  lower  rocks  are 
older ;  and  the  higher  are  newer,  with  some  excep- 
tions, to  be  explained  hereafter. 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTORE. 


RELATIVE   AGE   OF   ROCKS. 


19 


72.  No  man  in  his  senses,  and  with  any  knowledge 
of  the  facts  bearing  on  the  question,  would  contend 
that  the  igneous  and  the  aqueous  rocks  were  formed 
at  the  same  time.  Either  the  heat,  requisite  to  form 
the  igneous  rocks,  would  have  -expelled  the  water  ne- 
cessary to  form  the  aqueous ;  or  the  water,  necessary  to 
form  the  aqueous,  would  have  overcome  the  heat  re- 
quisite to  form  the  igneous.  As  well  might  you  tell 
me  that  one  piece  of  beef  will  bake  and  another 
freeze  in  the  same  oven  and  at  the  same  time,  or  that 
the  heat  that  will  melt  rocks  will  not  convert  water 
into  steam.  I  would  sooner  believe  either  of  these 
things  than  believe  that  the  upper  igneous  and  the 
lower  aqueous  rocks  were  formed  at  the  same  period. 
In  the  first  place,  it  seems  impossible  that  this  could 
have  been  done,  as  much  so  as  that  the  same  oven 
could  bake  and  freeze  at  the  same  time.  In  the  second 
place,  the  aqueous  rocks,  with  a  few  exceptions,  easily 
accounted  for,  always  lie  above  the  igneous,  showing 
thereby  that  they  were  deposited  last.  And  in  the 
third  place,  the  aqueous  rocks  were  manifestly  formed 
out  of  the  igneous,  and  therefore  must  have  been 
formed  subsequently.  If  a  horse-shoe  is  made  of  iron, 
the  iron  must  have  been  made  first.  Such  are  the 
reasonings  of  geologists  with  regard  to  the  relative 
age  of  rocks,  and  those  who  doubt  their  main  conclu- 
sions are  generally  those  who  have  looked  little  at  the 
facts. 

3 


50  GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    ROCKS. 

73.  As  we  come  above  tlie  igneous,  or  unstratified, 
into  the  stratified  rocks,  we  find  them  of  many  va- 
rieties, all  of  which  have  been  arranged  into  three 
principal  classes — primary^  secondary^  and  tertiary, 

74.  The  primary  rocks  either  lie  nearly  horizontally 
upon  the  igneous,  or  lean  with  a  gentle  slope  against 
them.  In  cases  of  the  latter  kind,  it  is  believed,  that 
the  igneous  rocks  have  been  forced  upwards  by  inter- 
nal convulsions  of  the  earth,  and  have  raised  the  pri- 
mary rocks  along  with  them,  inasmuch  as  all  stratified 
rocks,  having  been  deposited  by  the  agency  of  water, 
must  originally  have  been  nearly  horizontal.  These 
primary  rocks  are  generally  hard.  They  have  been 
subjected  to  immense  pressure.  Many  of  them  bear 
marks  of  having  been  intensely  heated  since  their  de- 
position. Some  of  them  are  highly  crystalline.  They 
are  nearly  destitute  of  fossil  remains,  and  the  few  they 
contain  are  entirely  unlike  any  plants  or  animals  now 
on  the  globe — an  additional  proof  that,  though  not  as 
old  as  the  igneous  rocks,  on  which  they  lie,  they  are 
older  than  other  rocks  which  lie  above  them,  and 
which  contain  fossil  remains  more  like  existing  species. 

75.  Rocks  of  the  secondary  class  overlay  those  of 
the  primary ;  they  contain  more  fossil  remains ;  and 
the  fossil  remains  found  in  them,  though  unlike  exist- 
ing species,  bear  a  nearer  resemblance  to  them  than 
those  in  the  primary  rocks.  These  facts  show  them 
to  be  of  later  origin  than  the  primary. 


GEOLOGY   OF   AGRICULTURE.  51 

76.  Rocks  of  the  tertiary  class  are  characierized  by 
containing,-  among  other  fossil  remains,  species  of  ani- 
mals, which  are  identical  with  those  now  on  the  earth. 
These  overlay  the  secondary,  and  abound  more  than 
either  of  the  others  in  fossil  remains. 

77.  Over  the  tertiary  rocks,  and  covering  large  por* 
tions  of  the  earth,  is  what  geologists  have  called  drift — 
boulder  rocks,  rounded  stones  and  pebbles,  coarse 
and  fine  gravel,  sand  and  clay,  forming,  in  many 
cases,  the  soil  which  we  now  cultivate.  This,  all  over 
the  northern  half  of  the  globe,  seems  to  have  been 
transported,  by  some  astonishing  power,  acting  from 
the  north,  and  carried  in  a  southern  direction,  from  a 
few  rods  to  several  hundred  miles,  from  the  rocks,  in 
which  it  had  its  origin. 

78.  Since  the  drift  period,  various  changes  have 
taken  place,  and  are  still  going  on,  as  the  result  of 
causes  now  in  operation,  such  as  the  running  of  streams, 
the  filling  up  of  ponds,  and  others.  Strata,  formed  by 
these  existing  causes,  are  called  alluvial, 

79.  We  have  then,  as  t]|j3  most  recently  formed 
strata,  alluvial  deposits,  next  drift,  next  tertiary  rocks, 
next  secondary,  and  then  primary,  resting  on  the  up- 
per portion  of  the  igneous  rocks. 

80.  Among  the  igneous,  or  un stratified  rocks,  are 
granite,  trap  rocks,  and  the  older  and  more  recent 
lavas.  These  appear  to  have  been  ejected  in  a  state 
of  fusion  by  heat,  at  different  epochs,  from  the  bowels 


52  GEOLOGY   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  earth,  and  to  have  consolidated,  sometimes 
among  the  stratified  rocks,  and  sometimes  above  them 
all,  forming  in  some  cases  immense  mountain  masses 
of  igneous  rocks. 

81.  It  is  often  said  by  those  who  have  looked  but 
little  at  this  subject,  that  geologists  know  nothing 
about  the  comparative  age  of  rocks  ;  that  God  could 
have  created  the  world  at  once,  just  as  it  is,  with  all 
its  appearances  of  hoary  age  about  it,  with  all  its  signs 
of  ancient  upheavings  and  volcanic  vomitings,  with  its 
innumerable  monsters  imbedded  within,  creatures 
great  and  small,  beautiful  and  ugly,  formed  as  if  for 
flying,  running,  swimming  and  creeping,  but  destined 
to  do  neither — all  for  no  conceivable  purpose,  unless 
it  were  to  deceive  modern  geologists.  That  God  could 
do  all  this,  I  suppose  no  one  wishes  to  deny.  That 
He  would  do  it,  if  there  was  a  good  reason  for  it,  I 
have  no  doubt. 

82.  If  L  should  say  of  an  old  book,  dated  a  century 
ago,  with  as  many  dates  scribbled  on  its  margins,  as 
there  have  been  years  since,  with  its  binding  well 
worn  and  its  leaves  thoBtughly  soiled,  that  there  was 
no  evidence  of  age  about  it — for  the  book-maker  could 
manufacture  just  such  a  book  as  it  now  is — I  should 
probably  not  be  thought  to  reason  very  soundly ;  and 
yet  the  argument  would  be  as  good  in  one  case  as  in 
the  other,  but  for  a  single  consideration,  and  that  is, 
that  a  book-maker  can  deceive  ;  God  will  not.  To  a 
reasoning  mind  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  earth's  crust  were  formed  at  different 
and  immensely  distant  periods. 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.  63 

ORIGIN   OP   SOILS. 

83.  All  soils,  Avbether  alluvial,  drift,  or  tertiary  in 
their  origin,  are  derived  from  roclcs,  broken  down, 
ground  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  fineness,  and  so 
disseminated  that  the  ruins  of  one  rock  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  mixed,  in  most  cases,  with  those  of  a  great 
many  others.  |  The  idea  that  soil§,  have  originated 
from  the  rock  immediately  under  them  is  an  error. 
When  the  drift  period  was,  is  not  known,  except  that 
it  was  subsequent  to  fhe  tertiary  and  anterior  to"  the 
historic  period  ;  nor  is  it  known  what  the  drift  agency 
was  ;  but  it  is  known,  as  well  as  anything  can  be,  that 
some  tremendous  power  was  at  work  tearing  up,  trans- 
porting, and  mixing  the  loose  materials  on  the  earth's 
surface.  The  soil  on  nearly  every  foot  of  land  in  our 
country — and  the  same  is  true  of  Europe,  at  least,  if 
not  of  the  whole  world — has  come  from  many  and 
wide-spread  localities.  I  Every  soil  may  be  considered 
as  a  mixture  of  many  soils.  If  every  particle  in  a 
cubic  foot  of  earth  were  to  be  endowed  with  instinct, 
and  were  to  rise  up  and  take  its  departure  for  its  ori- 
ginal rocky  home,  I  have  no  doubt  there  would  be  a 
wide  scattering,  and  I  believe  an  extent  of  travel  would 
be  shown  quite  surprising  to  those  who  have  not  re- 
flected on  the  subject. 

84.  If  these  views  are  correct — if  the  loose  materials 
on  the  earth's  surface  have  been  extensively  trans- 
ported, scattered,  and  mixed — if  they  are  now  so  min- 
gled and  confounded  that  the  acutest  geologist  can  de- 
tect the  origin  of  only  the  coarser  parts  (boulders, 


64  GEOLOGY   OF  AGRICULTUEE. 

pebbles,  and  coarse  gravel) — if,  with  regard  to  these, 
he  finds  the  original  locality  from  one  to  five  hundred 
miles  distant,  all  of  which  is  sustained  by  the  very 
best  authorities,  no  one,  that  I  know,  disputing — it 
follows,  of  course,  that  soils  depend  very  little,  for 
their  composition  and  capabilities,  upon  the  rocks  im- 
mediately underlaying  them.  This  view  is  confirmed 
by  analyses  of  soils.  *  No  more  carbonate  of  lime,  for 
instance,  is  found  in  lime-stone  regions  than  in  others. 
The  same  is  true  of  other  ingredients  of  soils.  They 
are  not  always  found  in  soils  overlaying  the  rocks  that 
contain  them.  ]  Soils  do  not  come  from  the  underlay- 
ing rock,  but  from  wide-spread  regions,  generally  north 
and  north-west  of  their  present  location.  Hence,  if 
rocks  were  ever  so  varied  in  their  constitution,  it  would 
not  follow  that  soils  are.   | 


ROCKS    AND    MINERALS. 

85.  The  truth  is,  that  rocks  themselves  are  not  as 
various  in  composition  as  many  suppose.  "  Seven  or 
eight  simple  minerals  constitute  the  great  mass  of  all 
known  rocks.  These  are — 1,  quartz ;  2,  felspar ;  3, 
mica ;  4,  hornblende  and  augite ;  5,  carbonate  of  lime ; 
6,  talc,  embracing  chlorite  and  soap-stone ;  7,  serpen- 
tine. Oxide  of  iron  is  also  very  common,  but  does 
not  usually  show  itself  till  the  decomposition  of  the 
rock  commences." — Hitchcoch^s  Geol.^  p.  45. 

86.  From  the  same  high  authority  we  learn  that 
"  The  following  constitute  nearly  all  the  binary  com- 
pounds of  the  accessible  parts  of  the  globe :  1,  silica ; 


GEOLOGY  OF   AGRICULTURE.  56 

2,  alumina  ;  3,  lime  ;  4,  magnesia ;  5,  potassa  ;  6,  soda ; 
7,  oxide  of  iron ;  8,  oxide  of  manganese ;  9,  water ; 
10,  carbonic  acid."  It  should  be  observed  that  every 
one  of  these  binary  compounds  are  formed  out  of  the 
fifteen  simple  elements  heretofore  described,  under  the 
head  of  chemistry  (Table  I.):  Every  one  of  them  is 
a  compound  of  oxygen  with  one  other  element,  so 
that  only  eleven  of  the  elements  enter  into  their  com- 
position. 

87.  Perhaps,  for  some  of  my  readers,  a  description 
of  the  before-mentioned  minerals  may  be  needful. 

Quartz  is  of  various  colors,  but  generally  almost 
white ;  and  when  crystallized,  it  is  transparent,  a  hard, 
flinty  substance,  composed  almost  wholly  of  silica,  or 
silicic  acid  (SiO^),  known  as  flint,  flinty  stones  and  sand. 

Felspar  exists  in  connection  with  quartz  and  mica 
in  granite,  and  may  be  distinguished  from  either  by  a 
glossy  fracture  when  broken,  somewhat  resembling 
that  of  fine  earthenware. 

Mica^  the  third  constituent  of  granite,  is  known  ex- 
tensively as  isinglass,  is  of  various  colors,  but  more 
commonly  nearly  colorless,  divisible  into  thin,  flexible 
plates. 

HornUende  is  a  common  mineral,  of  various  colors, 
occurring  sometimes  massive,  at  others  in  crystals; 
the  crystals  are  sometimes  short,  but  more  generally 
long  and  slender,  blade-like,  sometimes  fibrous. 

Carbonate  of  Lime  is  a  ternary  compound,  as  its 
name  implies ;  oxygen  and  calcium  first  uniting  to 
form  lime  (oxide  of  calcium),  and  then  carbonic  acid 
uniting  with  lime  to  form  the  carbonate.    It  is  knowa- 


56  GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

in  various  forms,  as  fine  marble,  common  lime-stone, 
and  chalk.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  almost  any 
other  mineral  by  its  effervescence  (bubbling),  if  an 
acid  (vinegar,  for  instance)  be  poured  upon  it. 

Talc  is  a  magnesian  mineral,  consisting  of  broad, 
smooth  laminae,  or  plates#  It  is  soapy  to  the  touch ; 
admits  light  through  it ;  and  is  sometimes  even  trans- 
parent. 

Chlorite  and  Soap-stone  are  little  else  than  varieties 
of  the  same  mineral. 

ISerpentine  is  also  a  magnesian  mineral,  of  a  greenish 
color,  with  spots  resembling  a  serpent's  skin — from 
which  its  name. 

88.  I  have  just  quoted  the  opinion  of  a  very  emi- 
nent geologist,  that  these  seven  minerals  "  constitute 
the  great  mass  of  all  known  rocks,"  as  also  his  opinion 
that  silica,  alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  soda, 
oxide  of  manganese,  oxide  of  iron,  water,  and  car- 
bonic acid  "  constitute  nearly  all  the  binary  compounds 
of  the  accessible  parts  of  the  globe."  I  will  now  in- 
vite attention  to  the  opinions  of  the  same  writer  with 
regard  to  the  proportions  in  which  these  last-mentioned 
substances  exist. 

89.  "  It  has  been  calculated  that  oxygen  constitutes 
50  per  cent,  of  the  ponderable  matter  of  the  globe ; 
and  that  its  crust  contains  45  pei  cent,  of  silica,  and  at 
least  10  per  cent,  of  alumina.  Potassa  constitutes 
nearly  7  per  cent,  of  the  unstratified  rocks ;  and  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  some  of  the  stratified 
class.     Soda  forms  nearly  6  per  cent,  of  soAie  basalts, 


GEOLOGY   OF  AGRICULTURE.  fit 

and  other  less  extensive  unstratified  rocks ;  and  it  en- 
ters largely  into  the  composition  of  the  ocean.  Lime 
and  magnesia  are  diffused  almost  universally  among 
the  rocks,  in  the  form  of  silicates  and  carbonates — the 
carbonate  having  been  estimated  to  form  one-seventh 
of  the  crust  of  the  globe.  At  least  three  per  cent,  of 
all  known  rocks  are  some  binary  combination  of  iron, 
such  as  an  oxide,  a  sulphiiret,  a  carburet,  &c.  Man- 
ganese is  widely  diffused,  but  forms  much  less  than 
one  per  cent,  of  the  mass  of  rocks." — (Hitchcock^s 
Geol.^  ]),  45.) 

90.  The  foregoing  is  rather  a  geological  than  a 
chemical  view.  Most  of  the  substances  spoken  of  ex- 
ist in  rocks  and  soils,  as  ternary  compounds.  Says 
Dana  (Muck  Manual,  p.  56 — an  unpretending  name, 
but  an  excellent  book),  "Viewed  in  the  light  of  chem- 
istry, rocks  are  masses  of  silicates.  The  simple  mine- 
rals composing  rocks  are  truly  only  silicates  in  fixed 
proportions.  The  simple  minerals  are  quartz,  felspar, 
mica,  hornblende,  talc,  serpentine." 

91.  According  to  this  same  author,  chemically  de- 
fining the  above  minerals,  quartz  is  nearly  pure  silica; 
felspar  and  mica  are  silicates  of  alumina  and  potash ; 
hornblende  is  silicate  of  alumina  and  lime,  with  mag- 
nesia ;  and  talc  and  serpentine  are  silicates  of  magnesia. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  silex,  silica,  or  silicic  acid,  as 
unfortunately  it  is  variously  called,  forms  a  very 
prominent  part  of  the  principal  minerals,  with  the' ex- 
ception of  carbonate  of  lime  ;  and  consequently  of  ail 
rocks,  except  lime-stone ;  and  then,  as  another  conse- 

3* 


58  GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

qnence,  of  all  soils,  inasmuch  as  soils  are  formed  from 
rocks.  If  we  consider  that  quartz,  bj  far  the  most 
abundant  mineral  in  nature,  is  nearly  pure  silica,  and 
that  the  other  leading  minerals  are  more  than  half 
silica,  we  need  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that  soils  con- 
tain all  the  way  from  60  to  90  per  cent,  of  this  ingre- 
dient. Sandy  soils  contain  a  higher  per  cent,  still. 
Peats  and  bogs  may  be  excepted,  as  not  being  strictly 
soils,  but  rather  collections  of  organic  matter — par- 
tially decayed  vegetables.  The  average  of  silica  in  soils 
cannot  be  less  than  from  75  to  80  per  cent. 

92.  From  an  inspection  of  analyses  of  rocks  by  dis- 
tinguished chemists,  it  appears  that  the  older  rocks 
contain  rather  more  silica,  and  a  little  less  magnesia, 
alumina  and  lime,  than  the  newer.  If  this  is  really 
so,  then  we  might  infer  that  there  would  be  found  a 
characteristic  difference  of  soils  in  the  neighborhoods 
of  different  rocks;  were  it  not  for  the  f\xct,  before 
stated,  that  all  soils  have  been  so  transported  and  mix- 
ed, as  to  preclude  the  expectation  of  finding  any  now 
remaining  unmixed  in  the  region  of  their  formation. 
When  we  take  this  fact  into  view,  I  think  we  may 
safely  conclude  that  rocks  afford  but  a  poor  criterion 
forjudging  of  the  character  of  a  soil,  and  poorer  still 
for  deciding  upon  the  treatment  best  suited  to  it. 

AMENDING    SOILS. 

93.  Most,  if  not  all  soils,  produce  well,  when  first 
brought  under  cultivation.  Few,  if  any,  continue  to 
pi'oduce  -vyell  long,  unless  well  managed.     These  facts 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.  69 

show  that  more  depends  upon  the  farmer  on  a  farm, 
than  upon  the  rocks  under  it. 

94.  "We  all  know,  that  where  a  torrent  from  the 
hills  flows  into  a  pond,  it  deposits  its  gravel  at,  or  a 
little  above,  its  mouth,  while  it  carries  its  fine  sand 
into  the  pond,  and  its  still  finer  sediment  some  distance 
further.  If  that  pond  should  be  drained  and  cultiva- 
ted, it  is  quite  possible  that  the  land  above  the  former 
mouth  of  the  stream  might  be  found  too  gravelly ; 
that,  just  below,  too  sandy ;  and  that,  at  some  distance, 
too  clayey.  Various  causes,  on  a  larger  scale,  some 
of  them  probably  similar  to  this,  have  left  rather  too 
much  coarse  matter  in  some  places,  too  much  silica  in 
others,  and  in  some  not  enough.  Energy  and  perse- 
vering labor,  scientifically  directed,  will  overcome  the 
difiiculties ;  and  nearly  all  lands  will  yet  be  made 
good.  Science  has  shown  that  our  poorest  pine  plains 
have  in  them  the  essential  elements  of  grain  crops  for 
an*  indefinitely  long  time  to  come ;  that  they  only 
need  to  be  brought  into  action,  and  that  this  can  be 
done.  We  all  know  that  our  swamps,  now  almost 
useless — better  sunk  than  floating,  if  that  would  not 
make  a  worse  hole  than  now  exists — are  sources  of 
endless  fertility.  We  will  not  blame  our  fathers,  that 
they  did  not  bring  them  into  cultivation  ;  they  could 
not  do  everything;  but  let  us  do,  in  this  matter,  what 
they  (perhaps  wisely,  in  their  jcircumstances)  have  left 
undone.  , 

95.  Nearly  all  lands  are  yet  to  be  made  productive. 
We  must»take  first  those  that  will  pay  best.     Others 


60  GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

will  pay  by-and-bye.  I  do  not  despair  of  the  time, 
when  the  man  who  toils,  if  he  toils  intelligently,  on  a 
poor  farm,  will  be  as  well  paid  as  lie  who  works  on  a 
good  one,  after  taking  into  account  the  rise  in  the  value 
of  the  first,  and  comparing  it  with  the  stationary  or 
retrograde  value  of  the  other.  Thousands  of  unseemly 
spots,  sand  and  bog,  on  which  it  might  have  been  un- 
wise for  our  fathers  to  invest  capital  fifty  years  ago, 
would  make  an  excellent  return  for  capital  invested 
on  them  this  day ;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve, that  others  will  fast  come  into  the  same  relation 
to  capital  and  labor — will  pay  well,  ten,  fifteen  and 
twenty  years  hence. 

96.  In  the  matter  of  reclaiming  lands,  as  well  as 
of  cultivating  those  already  good,  farmers  should  be 
guided  by  experience,  by  observation,  and  by  common 
sense.  Undoubtedly  these  are  the  best  teachers.  But 
they  are  not  the  only  teachers.  Science  proffers  her 
sympathy  and  her  instructions.  Farmers  should  wel- 
come her  aid.  Why  should  they  despair  of  her  wil- 
lingness and  her  ability  to  benefit  them,  when  they 
see  what  she  has  done  for  other  interests ;  manufac- 
turing bales  of  goods  with  the  labor  once  required  for 
single  pieces ;  sending  merchandise  with  the  speed  of 
steam,  aud  mercantile  intelligence  with  that  of  light- 
ing ?    ^ 

97.  Science  has  its  various  branches ;  and  if  it  be 
asked,  what  particular  science  is  n^ost  adapted  to  bene- 
fit agriculture,  I  answer  without  hesitation,  that  every 
science  teaches  tilings,  whiclj  thp  farmer  may  turn  to 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.  61 

practical  use.  Zoology  has  important  relations  to  the 
rearing  of  useful  animals,  and  to  the  destroying  of 
noxious  insects.  Geology  has  done  much  to  de- 
velop resources,  beneficial  to  all  interests ;  and  it  de- 
serves especially  well  of  the  farmer ;  it  has  brought  to 
light  fertilizing  materials  of  great  value;  and  it  stands 
ready  to  teach  various  lessons,  which  farmers  would  do 
well  to  hear.  But  of  all  the  sciences  for  aiding  practi- 
cal agriculture,  chemistry  is  first.  The  farmer  should 
not  only  heed  what  the  cherpist  tells  him,  but  should 
learn  somethin^^  of  this  science  for  himself.  It  is  in- 
wrought  with  his  very  employment.  The  farmer's 
whole  life  is  spent  in  performing,  or  in  aiding  nature 
to  perform,  chemical  operations.  He  should  under- 
stand how  the  thing  is  done.  Even  when  he  does 
right,  without  knowing  why,  it  would  at  least  bo  a 
satisfaction  to  know  the  reason. 


PHYSICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  SOILS. 

98.  It  has  been  stated,  that  the  igneous  rocks  (those 
which  had  their  origin  in  the  action  of  intense  heat) 
lie  below  the  aqueous  (those  which  have  been  deposit- 
ed from  water).  This  is  true,  with  the  exception  of 
such  igneous  rocks  as  have  been  forced  up  by  volcanic 
actioft  through  the  aqueous  rocks,  and  deposited  above 
them.  Granite  is  the  result  of  the  most  ancient  vol- 
canic action  of  which  there  is  now  any  evidence  re- 
maining. Immense  quantities  of  this  rock  seem  to 
have  been  forced  up  in  a  melted  state,  forming  exten- 
sive mountain  ranges.  Portions  of  this,  as  well  as  of 
other  rocks,  have  since  been  broken  down,  and  scat- 


62  GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

tered  over  the  earth's  surface,  in  the  form  of  boulders 
and  pebbles,  by  what  has  been  termed  the  drift  agency. 
Trap-rock,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  hasoJt  and 
gremstone,  seems  to  have  resulted  from  the  volcanic  ao 
tion  of  a  later,  but  still  very  ancient  period.  IMountain 
ranges  of  this  are  also  found  in  various  places,  as  the 
Holyoke  range  in  Hampshire  county.  Lava  is  the  re- 
sult of  still  more  recent  volcanic  action,  including  that 
of  volcanoes  now  in  existence.  The  granite,  trap-rock, 
and  lava,  which  appear  on  or  near  the  surface,  are 
therefore  to  be  considered  as  having  come  from  deep 
in  the  earth.  They  have  been  forced  up,  as  lava  still 
is,  by  volcanic  action.  Their  presence  above  the  aque- 
ous rocks,  in  such  vast  quantities,  indicates  an  immense 
amount  of  the  same  materials  below  them.  Next  below 
the  aqueous  rocks,  is  supposed  to  be  that  vast  amount 
of  granite,  of  which  the  portions  existing  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  as  thrown  up  by  ancient  volcanoes, 
are  but  mere  specimens.  Next  below  the  granite  is 
supposed  to  lie  the  trap-rock,  from  which  the  less  an- 
cient volcanoes  were  supplied  with  the  material  which 
they  belched  forth.  Below  the  trap,  geologists  be- 
lieve, is  the  molten  lava,  which  existing  volcanoes  are 
now  throwing  out.  It  has  been  ascertained  bej^ond  a 
doubt,  that  as  we  descend  into  the  earth  the  tem- 
perature becomes  warmer,  at  a  rate  that  would  Sring 
it  to  the  melting  point  of  rock,  at  something  like  forty 
miles  from  the  surface.  It  has  therefore  been  inferred 
that  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth  cannot  be  more  than 
40  or  50  miles  in  thickness.  This  crust,  or  shell,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  made  up,  first,  above  the  lava  of  trap-rock, 
then  granite  •  then  the  acueous  rocks,  the  primary,  the 


aEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.  6B 

secondary  and  the  tertiary ;  and  then  above  these  the 
drift  and  the  alluvial  deposits.  It  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed, however,  that  each  of  these  forms  an  entire,  un- 
broken layer  or  coating  around  the  whole  earth.  This 
is  probably  true  of  the  igneous  formations  (the  trap 
and  the  granite).  It  is  different  with  the  aqueous  for- 
mations. The  primary  rocks  have  been  broken  in 
many  places,  and  forced  asunder  by  the  ejectment  of 
igneous  matter  from  below.  In  other  places  they  have 
been  lifted  up,  by  internal  heavings  of  the  earth,  so 
high  that  no  secondary  rocks  have  been  formed  above 
them.  Consequently  the  secondary  formation  is  more 
broken  than  the  primary.  The  tertiary  is  still  more 
broken,  covering  but  comparatively  small  portions  of 
the  earth.  The  drift  is  of  very  unequal  thickness, 
having  been  lodged  by  the  agency  that  distributed  it, 
more  in  valleys,  less  on  high  grounds,  and  not  at  all 
on  mountains.  The  alluvial  deposits  are  of  very  limit- 
ed extent,  confined  mostly  to  the  banks  of  rivers,  which 
have  deposited  them  ;  to  peat  swamps,  formed  by  de- 
caying vegetable  matter ;  and  to  the  slopes  and  valleys 
about  volcanoes,  furnished  by  volcanic  matter  from 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.  Any  deposits,  which  are 
the  results  of  causes  now  in  operation,  are  considered 
as  alluvial.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  state- 
ments, that  what  we  call  the  soil  {the  cultivable  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface,  some  10  or  12  inches  deep)  may 
lie  on  either  of  the  aqueous,  or  stratified  rock  forma- 
tions, or  even  on  granite,  or  trap  beds,  with  nothing 
but  drift  intervening.  If  the  soil  lie  thus  above  gran- 
ite, we  call  that  a  granite  region,  as  New  Hampshire ; 
if  it  lie  above  the  primary,  stratified  rocks,  we  call  it 


64  GEOLOGY   OF   AGRICULTUEE. 

a  primary  region,  as  large  portions  of  Massachusetts ; 
if  above  secondary  rocks,  a  secondary  region ;  if  above 
tertiary  rocks,  tertiary ;  and  if  above  alluvial  deposits^ 
alluvial^  thus  naming  each  district  from  the  underlay- 
ing formation. 

99.  Let  us  now  look  at  some  of  the  changes  which 
the  soil  must  have  undergone.  No  one  can  examine 
it  with  a  powerful  microscope  without  perceiving  that 
it  consists  principally  of  rock  broken  down  to  various 
degrees  of  fineness,  from  the  troublesome  boulder  to 
the  minutest  particle.  It  bears  unmistakable  marks 
of  an  igneous  origin.  It  must  have  been  once  belched 
from  the  bosom  of  the  earth  in  a  state  of  intense  igni- 
tion. From  this  state  it  must  have  been  cooled  and 
solidified.  Much  of  it  also  bears  indubitable  marks 
of  having  been  since  broken  up,  violently  agitated  by 
water,  and  again  solidified  in  the  form  of  stratified 
rock.  From  this  state  it  appears  to  have  been  again 
broken  up  and  distributed  about  the  earth  in  the  form 
of  boulders,  pebbles,  hoarse  sand,  fine  sand,  and  clay. 
The  action  of  rains  and  frost  has  been  long  at  work, 
rendering  it  still  finer  than  when  first  deposited  in  its 
present  locations.  If  we  could  go  back  to  a  time 
when  the  earth  was,  in  the  language  of  Scripture, 
*'  without  form  and  void,"  or,  as  it  might  be  trans- 
lated, "  was  desolation  and  emptiness,"  when  as  yet 
no  plants  had  sprung  from  its  surface,  we  should 
probably  find  the  materials  which  now  constitute  our 
soils  in  a  comparatively  coarse  and  upcultivable 
state.  In  process  of  time  shrubs  and  trees  '  -prung  up. 
Successive  growths  lived  and  perished,  d]  ,*ying  their 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.  65 

nutriment  from  deep  in  the  ground,  and  depositing  it 
on  the  surface,  and  thus  accumulating  and  mingling 
with  tjie  surface  soil,  a  rich,  vegetable  mould.  It  was 
in  this  way,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  from  present  ap- 
pearances, that  the  Almighty  prepared  the  soil  for  his 
creatures.  It  was  in  this  state  that  our  fathers  re- 
ceived from  the  Infinite  Father  the  soil  of  this  land. 
The  soil  had  been  formed  from  comminuted  rocks. 
With  it  had  been  mingled  a  black,  carbonaceous 
mould,  extending  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in 
depth,  and  amounting  to  perhaps  from  five  to  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  whole.  The  benign,  ever- working  Power 
of  the  universe  had  thus  prepared  the  soil  by  such 
agencies  as  He  chose.  Volcanoes,  earthquakes,  floods, 
heat  and  cold,  sunshine  and  shower,  successive  gene- 
rations of  plants  and  animals,  and  we  know'^not  what 
other  agencies,  had  been  His  servants.  He  had  not 
made  it  all  a  garden.  He  did  not  require  them  to 
make  it  so  at  once.  But  He  had  made  it  capable  of 
becoming  a  fruitful  field  with  such  labor  as  they 
could  bestow,  and  ere  long,  with  more  labor  and  skill, 
of  becoming  a  garden,  so  fast  as  the  wants  of  His  crea- 
tures may  require.  And  it  is  not  too  much  to  say, 
that  the  man,  who,  by  skill  and  industry,  is  convert- 
ing the  portion  allotted  him  into  a  garden,  is  so  far 
doing  the  will  of  God.  I  believe  if  there  is  an  earthly 
pleasure  more  pure,  more  exalted,  and  more  approved 
of  God  than  any  other,  it  is  that  of  turning  the  un- 
seemly waste  into  a  fruitful  field,  and  the  fruitful  field 
into  a  garden,  "  with  every  tree  that  is  pleasant  to  the 
sight  and  good  for  food" — "to  dress  it  and  to  keep 
it."    What  is  pleasure  if  this  is  not  ?        •  / 


66  GEOLOGY   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

CHEMISTRY  OF  SOILS. 

100.  One  reason  why  rural  employments  arg  not 
regarded  as  the  most  desirable  in  which  man  can  be 
engaged,  as  they  seem  to  have  been  by  our  Creator, 
when  He  put  our  first  parents  into  a  garden,  "  to  dress 
it  and  to  keep  it,"  and  when  he  ordained  that  three 
fourths  of  the  human  race  should  live  by  agriculture, 
is,  that  labor  has  been  held  to  be  the  great  and  almost 
the  only  requisite ;  and  physical  labor  hap  been 
esteemed  less  honorable  than  intellectual  employment. 
The  truth  is,  that  the  employment  which  combines  a 
manly  exercise  of  both  the  body  and  the  mind  is  the 
most  favorable  to  long  life  and  rational  happiness; 
and  such  precisely  is  that  of  the  farmer.  The  Creator 
never  intended  that  the  farmer's  labors  should  be  un- 
reasonably severe,  nor  that  he  should  thrive  by  mere 
hand  labor  without  the  exercise  of  the  higher  facul- 
ties ;  and  He  has  therefore  made  his  employment  such 
as  to  require  extensive  and  varied  knowledge.  One 
important  item  of  knowledge  by  which  the  labor  of 
farming  may  be  diminished  and  its  profits  increased; 
is  that  of  the  chemical  composition  of  soils. 

101.  Soils  differ  essentially  in  their  chemical  char- 
acters. Some  are  nearlj^  or  qu:"te  destitute  of  several 
ingredients  necessary  to  fertility.  Such  are  poor 
soils.  Good  soils  may  contain  them  in  very  different 
proportions.  My  present  object  is  not  to  state  these 
proportions  in  any  given  soil,  but  rather  to  take  a 
general  view  of  the  causes  of  fertility  as  they  exist  in 
the  soil,  and*  in  the  rain  and  air  which  traverse  it* 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.  6T 

Let  us  look  at  a  soil  made  ready  for  the  Land  of  in- 
dustry by  those  protracted  agencies  before  described, 
rich  in  all  the  elements  of  fertility,  and  now  cleared 
and  loosened  up  to  a  reasonable  depth ;  and  let  us  in- 
quire what  are  the  causes  of  its  productiveness,  or 
what  there  is  in  and  about  that  soil,  which  will  make 
it  produce  well. 

102.  As  we  discuss  this  question,  the  learner-will 
do  well  to  turn  back  to  the  tables  as  they  are  referred 
to,  and  refresh  his  memory  with  what  has  been  said 
of  the  substances  there  enumerated.  Does  this  soil 
contain  the  elements  mentioned  in  Table  I.  ?  The  an- 
swer is,  Yes,  it  contains  every  one  of  them,  and  it 
contains  nothing  else,  or  next  to  nothing ;  but  it  does 
not  probably  contain  a  single  one  of  them  in  their  ele- 
mentary, uncombined  state. 

103.  We  will  now  turn  to  the  hinary  compounds  in 
Table  I.  Passing  by  the  first  as  unimportant  and  not 
to  be  found  in  soils,  we  come  to  the  second,  sulphuric 
add  (SO^).  Our  soil  will  contain  1  per  cent,  or  less  of 
this.  It  is  found  by  actual  analysis  to  form  a  small 
part  of  all  fertile  soils.  But  in  warm,  sweet  soils, 
none  of  it  is  found  in  its  acid  or  sour  state.  It  is 
combined  with  somer  one  or  more  of  the  bases  (see  Ta- 
ble III.),  forming  a  sulphate  or  sulphates,  as  with  lime, 
for  instance,  forming  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum). 
Next  we  come  to  phosphoric  acid  (PO*,  Table  I.).  We 
should  expect  to  find  from  j-to  ^  of  1  per  cent,  of 
this,  but  not  in  its  uncombined  state.  It  exists  in  all 
fertile  soils,  combined  with  lime  and  other  bases  (Ta- 


68  GEOLOGY   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

ble  III.)  as  phosphates,  and  is  essential  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  cereals,  and  of  all  of  the  sweet,  nutritive 
grasses. 

104.  Carhonic  acid  {CO"^,  Table  I.)  can  hardly  be  said 
to  be  an  ingredient  of  the  soil,  and  yet  it  exists  in 
nearly  all  soils  in  combination  with  some  of  the  bases 
(Table  III.)  as  carbonates ;  and  all  cultivated  soils  are 
always  producing  it.  Whenever  vegetable  matter 
burns,  its  carbon  combines  with  oxygen  and  forms  car- 
bonic acid.  The  same  happens  when  vegetables  decay 
in  such  circumstances  that  air  has  access  to  them.  Ve- 
getable matter  in  the  soil  is  thus  constantly  giving  off 
carbonic  acid.  A  portion  of  this  may  be  supposed  to 
combine  with  the  bases  in  the  soil,  to  form  carbon- 
ates. Much  of  it  goes  to  feed  plants,  entering  their 
roots,  dissolved  in  water,  or  ascending  to  be  taken  in 
through  the  pores  of  their  leaves.  When  land  lies  in 
fallow  through  the  heat  of  summer,  it  cannot  be 
doubted,  that  much  of  it  escapes  into  the  air  and  is 
lost,  at  least  to  the  owner  of  that  field. 

105.  Silicic  acid  (SiO^),  or  Silica,  (quartz,  flint, 
sand)  constitutes  generally  from  60  to  90  per  cent,  of 
good  soils,  and  often  as  much  as  95  per  cent,  of  sandy 
soils.  Silica  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  is  rendered  sol- 
uble by  alkalies.  One  effect  of  ashing  land,  is  to  ren- 
der the  silica  soluble,  so  that  it  can  be  taken  up  by 
the  roots  of  plants.  Its  office  seems  to  be  to  afford 
the  stiffening  material,  for  the  stalk,  straw,  husk,  and 
other  parts  which  require  to  be  firm  in  order  to  sup- 
port or  protect  the  seeds. 


GEOLOGY   OF  AGRICULTURE.  ^9 

106.  Nitric  acid  (NO'). — This,  like  carbonic  acid, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  a  permanent  ingredient  of 
the  soil,  except  as  it  exists  in  combination  with  bases 
forming  nitrates.  Eain-water  is,  however,  sometimes 
impregnated  with  it,  particularly  in  thunder  storms. 
In  highly  manured  soils,  it  is  formed  on  the  surface, 
by  a  direct  union  of  its  elements,  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen. It  then  combines  with  bases  in  the  soil,  forming 
nitrates,  which  may  often  be  seen  on  the  surface,  as  a 
kind  of  white  mould.  Such  an  appearance  always 
indicates  well  for  the  crops,  for  the  nitrates  are  easily 
soluble,  and  act  as  stimulants  to  the  growth  of  plants. 

107.  Watei'  (HO). — The  office  of  this  compound,  to 
furnish  the  moisture  required  by  plants,  is  too  well 
known  to  require  to  be  spoken  of  here.  There  is  an- 
other, and  most  important  office  of  water,  which  is 
not  so  well  understood ;  it  is  that  of  dissolving  the 
foods  of  plants,  and  carrying  them  into  the  plant  in 
a  state  of  limpid  solutions.  All  the  foods  of  plants 
enter  them,  either  as  invisible  gases  through  the 
leaves,  or  in  a  state  of  perfectly  limpid  solutions, 
through  the  roots.  Now  water  will  dissolve  in  itself 
and  hold  in  solution  3^  times  its  bulk  of  oxygen, 
once  and  a  half  its  bulk  of  nitrogen,  once  and  a  half 
its  bulk  of  hydrogen,  once  its  bulk  of  carbonic  acid, 
and  many  times  jts  bulk  of  ammonia.  In  this  way  it 
conveys  these  and  other  nutritious  gases  as  food  into 
the  plant.  Water  also  dissolves  solid  substances, 
some  more  anS  others  less,  and  thus  carries  them  in 
the  form  of  transparent  solutions  into  the  plant,  as 


70  GEOLOGY   OF  AqRICULTURE. 

food.  This  office  will  appear  the  more  important, 
when  we  consider  that  all  growing  plants  perspire 
largely.  They  take  np  large  quantities  of  water  from 
the  soil,  appropriate  to  their  own  growth  the  nutritive 
matter  dissolved  in  it,  and  then  throw  it  off  from 
their  leaves,  by  insensible  perspiration.  The  benefi- 
cial effect  of  irrigating  grass  lands  is  probably  owing 
mainly  to  the  fact,  that  as  the  water  passes  over  the 
field,  it  is  constantly  absorbing  gases  from  the  air  and 
conveying  them  to  the  roots  of  the  grass.  If  the  wa- 
ter be  impure,  as  happens  with  many  streams,  its  im- 
purities operate  as  fertilizers  ;  and  the  irrigation  may 
in  this  way  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  liquid  manuring. 

108.  Oxides  of  Iron  (FeO  and  Fe'O').— The  protox- 
ide of  iron  (FeO)  seldom  exists  in  soils,  except  in 
those  which  are  low,  wet  and  boggy.  This,  as  before 
stated,  turns  to  the  sesquioxide  (Fe'^O^),  under  the  in- 
fluence of  cultivation.  This  latter  is  red,  and  it  is 
this  which  gives  that  color  to  so  many  soils.  In  a 
rich  and  productive  soil,  such  as  we  are  now  consid- 
ering, it  may  be  found  in  proportions  varying  from 
1  or  2  to  6  or  8  per  cent.. 

109.  Oxides  of  Manganese. — Of  these,  there  is  but 
one  that  deserves  to  be  mentioned  as  a  constituent  of 
soils,  the  black  oxide  (MnO'') ;  and  this  would  seldom 
be  found  to  exceed  one-half  of  one  per  cent. 

110.  Potash  (KO). — One  per  cent,  df  potash  would 
be  considered  an  indication  of  great  fertility  so  far  as 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.  71 

this  ingredient  is  concerned.  More  may  exist  in  some 
soils,  but  oftener  less.  It  is  generally  found  combined 
with  carbonic,  or.  some  other  acid,  as  a  salt  of  potash. 

111.  Soda  (NaO)  exists  in  soils,  varying  perhaps 
from  one-tenth  to  one-half  of  one  per  cent. 

112.  Xime(CaO). — Some  soils  contain  not  less  than 
8  or  10  per  cent,  of  lime ;  while  a  soil  may  be  excel- 
Tent,  and  yet  not  contain  more  than  one  per  cent.  It 
is  generally  in  combination  with  sulphuric,  phos- 
phoric, and  carbonic  acids,  forming  sulphate,  phos- 
phate, and  carbonate  of  lime ;  or  with  silica,  forming 
silicate  of  lime. 

113.  Magnesia  (MgO). — One  per  cent,  of  this  would 
be  a  large  allowance.  Soils  generally  contain  much 
less.  More  would  be  injurious  rather  than  other- 
wise. 

114.  Alumina  (Al'O^). — This  is  a  fine  white  pow- 
der. It  is  the  basis  of  clay,  which  is  a  silicate  of  alu- 
mina, composed  of  about  40  per  cent,  of  alumina  and 
60  of  silica.  Good  soils  contain  all  the  way  from  2 
to  10  per  cent,  of  alumina.  Those  containing  more 
than  10  are  apt  to  be  too  adhesive,  and  those  having 
less  than  2  are  too  porous  and  open.  If  a  soil  is  too 
clayey,  it  is  difficult  to  cultivate ;  if  not  sufficien4;ly 
clayey,  it  lacks  the  power  of  retaining  the  food  of 
plants,  and  allows  them  to  escape  by  both  evapora- 
tion and  filtration.  Many  a  sandy  soil  would  be  more 
benefited  by  10  loads  of  manure  and  10  of  clay,  than 


72  GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTUEE. 

by  20  of  manure ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  many 
clay  soils  would  receive  more  benefit  from  10  loads 
of  manure  and  10  of  sand,  than  from  20  of  manure. 
The  reason  is,  that  in  one  case,  the  clay  enables  the 
sandy  soil  to  hold  the  manure  till  wanted  by  the 
plants ;  and  in  the  other  case,  the  sand  renders  the 
clay  soil  more  light,  open,  and  porous,  so  that  the  air 
can  circulate  through  it. 

115.  Chloride  of  Sodium  (NaCl),  or  common  salt,  is 
found  in  all  good  soils,  in  small  quantities,  not  ex- 
ceeding 2  or  3  tenths  of  one  per  cent.  It  is  oftener 
exhausted  from  lands  remote  from  salt  water.  Lands 
near  the  sea  are  constantly  supplied  with  minute  por- 
tions of  it,  in  the  fogs  and  rains  blown  from  the  sea 
to  the  land. 

116.  Smphuret  of  Iron. — As  before  stated,  there  are 
three  sulphurets  of  iron,  the  protosulphuret  (FeS), 
the  sesquisulphuret  (Fe^'S^),  and  the  bisulphuret  (FeS"^). 
The  first  often  occurs  in  boggy  and  marshy  soils.  It  is 
not  known  to  be  in  itself  hurtful  to  vegetation,  but  when 
exposed  to  the  air  it  absorbs  oxygen,  which  coverts  the 
sulphur  into  sulphuric  acid,  and  this  last,  combining 
with  the  iron,  forms  sulphate  of  iron,  which  is  de- 
cidedly injurious  to  vegetation.  The  injurious  effects 
are  counteracted  by  the  use  of  lime,  marl,  or  ashes. 
The  latter  should  not  be  applied  till  the  land  is  thor- 
oughly drained,  as  the  soluble  parts  (potash  and  soda) 
would  otherwise  be  lost.  The  bisulphuret  is  abund- 
ant in  nature,  existing  in  all  rock  formations,  and 
probably  in  nearl;'  all  soils.     When  crystallized,  it 


GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTURE.  78 

takes  the  color  and  form  of  yellow  cubes,  resembling 
gold,  for  which  reason  it  has  received  the  name,  as  be- 
fore mentioned,  of  fooVs  gold. 

* 

117.  Sulpkuret  of  Hydrogen  (HS). — This  is  a  gas, 
having  the  fetid  smell  of  spoiled  eggs.  It  cannot  be 
regarded  as  a  permanent  ingredient  of  soils,  but  in 
richly-manured  lands,  it  is  formed  in  the  soil,  and 
may  have  something  to  do  with  the  growth  of  plants. 

118.  Light  Carburetted  Hydrogen  (CH'^). — This  is  the 
gas  which  rises  and  floats  in  bubbles  on  the  surface 
of  water,  in  which  vegetable  matter  is  decaying.  It  is 
formed  also  in  soils  in  which  there  is  vegetable  matter 
far  below  the  surface.  Vegetable  matter  decaying  in 
the  air,  produces  carbonic  acid ;  but  when  decaying 
with  the  exclusion  of  air,  it  gives  off  carburetted  hy- 
drogen. 

119.  Heavy  carburetted  hydrogen  (C'H')  is  not  known 
to  possess  any  relations  to  agriculture.  This  is  the 
gas  used  for  purposes  of  lighting. 

120.  Ammonia  (NH')  (see  Table  I.,  20)  is  a  most 
valuable,  though  not  a  permanent  ingredient  of  soils. 
In  conjunction  with  carbonic  acid,  it  exists  in  the  air, 
in  exceedingly  minute  quantities,  and  rain-water  and 
snow  are  always  impregnated  with  it.  More  will  be 
said  of  its  relations  to  the  growth  of  crops  hereafter. 

121.  From  what  has  now  been  stated,  it  appears 
that  the  mineral  pai*t  of  soils  is  made  up  essentially 

4 


74:  GEOLOGY  OF  AGRICULTUKE. 

of  the  fifteen  elements  enumerated  in  Table  I.,  and 
yet  that  none  of  these  elements  exist  in  soils  in  their 
simple  uncombined  state ;  also,  that  nearly  all  the  com- 
pounds in  Table  I.  either  constitute  a  portion  of  soils, 
or  are  in  some  way  so  connected  with  soils,  as  to  act  a 
part  in  the  process  of  vegetation.  These  binary  com- 
pounds, however,  very  few  of  them,  exist  in  soils,  as 
binary  compounds.  They  are  further  combined  with 
each  other,  forming  salts  (see  Table  II.).  It  must  be 
recollected  that  the  acids  combine  with  the  bases 
(Table  III.)  and  form  salts,  whose  names  end  in  ate^ 
the  name  in  each  case  expressing  the  compounds  of 
which  the  salt  is  formed.  If  you  were  to  put  sulphuric 
acid  and  quick-lime  into  a  soil  together,  they  would 
not  remain  sulphuric  acid  and  quick-lime.  The  acid 
would  immediately  combine  with  the  lime,  and  sul- 
phate of  lime  (gypsum)  would  be  the  result.  So  there 
are  constant  changes  going  on  in  the  soil,  and  the 
higher  the  cultivation,  the  more  rapid  and  numerous 
the  changes.  To  control  these  changes,  to  arrest  such 
as  are  unfavorable,  and  to  hasten  those  which  are 
favorable  to  the  growing  of  crops,  is  the  great  object 
of  scientific  agriculture.  When  this  is  better  under- 
stood, the  farmer  can  increase  his  crops  without  in- 
creasing the  expense  in  an  equal  proportion,  and,  con- 
sequently, he  can  increase  his  profits. 

122.  Soils  consist  of  two  parts — the  organic  and  the 
inorganic.  By  the  inorganic  we  are  to  understand  the 
mineral  part,  that  which  remains  after  a-  portion  of 
soil  has  been  heated  to  redness ;  by  the  organic,  that 
which  burns  away.     The  organic  part  is  animal  and 


GEOLOGY   OF  AGRICULTURE.  75 

vegetable  matter  in  process  of  decay,  but  not  yet 
wholly  decomposed.  It  always  consists  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen  (CHON).  In  a  poor, 
worn-out  soil,  there  is  very  little  organic  matter.  In 
a  new  and  rich  soil,  such  as  we  have  been  considering, 
there  is  a  large  amount,  sometimes  as  high  as  20  per 
cent.,  and  very  often  as  high  as  ten.  So  much,  how- 
ever, is  not  necessary,  even  to  the  highest  fertility. 
Some  of  the  most  productive  soils  contain  not 
more  than  two  per  cent.  Organic  matter  in  soils 
passes  through  successive  changes  before  it  is  wholly 
decomposed  into  its  original  elements.  At  first  you 
will  find  it  in  the  form  of  decaying  grass,  weeds,  stub- 
ble, leaves,  roots,  &c.  In  this  state  you  may  sift  it 
out  with  a  coarse  sieve.  As  the  process  of  decay  goes 
on,  it  takes  in  oxygen  and  becomes  an  acid,  as  we 
have  seen  that  sulphur,  carbon,  and  other  substances 
become  acids  by  combining  with  oxygen.  As  the 
process  proceeds,  it  takes  more  oxygen,  and  becomes 
another  and  different  acid.  These  are  called  organic 
acids.  Chemists  have  distinguished  no  less  than  five 
of  them — humic,  ulmtc,  geic^  crenic^  and  apocrenic  acids. 
Others  have  chosen  to  call  the  decaying  matter  in  the 
soil  geine.  They  make  this  distinction,  however,  down 
to  that  point  in  the  process  of  decay  at  which  it  dis- 
solves in  water,  they  call  it  insoluble  geine^  and  beyond 
that,  soluble  geine.  But  as  vegetable  matter,  in  pro- 
cess of  decay,  becomes  sour,  and  then  changes  its  cha- 
racter, becoming  a  somewhat  different  substance  at 
each  stage  in  the  process,  there  may  be  a  propriety  in 
calling  it  an  acid,  and  in  giving  it  a  separate  name  for 


76  GEOLOGY   OF   AGRICULTUEE. 

eacli  stage;    and  hence  the  propriety  of  the  names 

123.  Besides  these  acids  there  are  also  many  other 
vegetable  acids.  Only  two  need  be  mentioned  here.  Ono 
of  these  is  oxalic  acid,  composed  of  carbon  and  oxj- 
gen  (CO^) ;  the  other  is  acetic  acid  (vinegar),  com- 
posed of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen  (OHO).  These, 
together  with  the  five  vegetable  acids  before  named, 
combine  with  the  bases  (Table  III),  and  form  com- 
pounds named  from  the  acid  and  the  base,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  inorganic  acids ;  as  acetate  of  potash, 
oxalate  of  lime,  &c.,  thus : 


ORGANIC   ACIDS. 

SALTS. 

Oxalic  Acid, 

Oxalates, 

Acetic  Acid, 

Acetates, 

Humic  Acid, 

Humates, 

Ulmic  Acid, 

Ulmates, 

Geic  Acid, 

Geates, 

Crenic  Acid, 

Crenates, 

Apocrenic  Acid, 

Apocrenatea. 

CHAPTEK    III. 
VEGETABLE      PHYSIOLOGY, 

IN  ITS  RELATIONS  TO  AGRICULTURK 


GERMINATION  OP    SEEDS. 

124.  The  well-matured  seed  contains  in  itself  the 
embryo  of  a  new  plant,  together  with  food  sufficient  for 
the  young  plant  to  feed  upon,  till  it  shall  have  had 
time  to  thrust  its  roots  into  the  soil,  and  its  leaves  into 
the  air,  to  draw  thence  nourishment  for  itself. 

125.  This  embryo,  with  its  future  food  closely  packed 
around  it,  is  so  snugly  encased,  generally  in  a  shell  or 
an  oily  skin,  that  it  will  remain  dormant,  like  certain 
animals  in  winter,  but  with  undiminished  vitality,  till 
the  circumstances  requisite  for  calling  it  into  new  life 
are  furnished. 

126.  The  embryo,  being  a  perfect  plant  in  miniature, 
as  shown  by  the  microscope,  has  but  to  enlarge  itself 
in  the  directions  already  commenced,  to  become  a 


78  VEGETABLES. 

normal  specimen,   after  tlie  likeness  of  the  parent 
plant. 

127.  The  germ  consists  of  a  'plumule  and  rac^zcZe,  the 
first  of  which  is  destined  to  shoot  upward  into  stem, 
branches  and  leaves ;  the  last,  to  spread  itself  in  the 
soil  into  roots.  Each  leaf  is  to  be  an  absorbent  of  ve- 
getable food  from  the  air ;  and  each  root,  with  an  open 
mouth  at  its  extremity,  is  to  run,  as  fast  as  possible, 
after  the  best  food  contained  in  the  ground  for  that 
particular  plant.  There  is  no  more  doubt  that  plants 
exercise  choice — select  their  food — than  that  cattle 
prefer  sweet  grass  to  sour ;  though  it  has  been  proved, 
that  in  some  cases,  they  will  take  the  wrong  food, 
when  they  cannot  get  the  right,  and  make  themselves 
sick  by  it;  just  as  cattle  will  eat  sour  grass,  when 
they  can  get  no  other,  and  as  men  will  eat  improper 
food  rather  than  starve.  As  brutes  will  suffer  more 
than  men,  before  they  will  resort  to  poisonous  diet, 
so  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  plants  will  endure 
hunger  still  longer  than  brutes,  before  they  will  take 
unwholesome  food. 

128.  That  they  will,  in  extreme  cases,  take  it,  and 
become  sickly  in  consequence,  is  now  pretty  generally 
conceded  ;  and  when  therefore  you  see  a  stinted,  yel- 
low plant,  with  no  worm  at  its  root,  nor  any  visible 
cause  for  its  misfortune,  you  may  conclude  that  it  is 
dying  a  lingering,  cruel  death,  partly  by  starvation 
and  partly  by  poison  ;  for  it  is  now  pretty  well  decided 
that  plants,  contra^ry  to  what  was  once  believed,  will 
absorb  poison,  before  they  will  quite  starve. 


VEGETABLES.  79 

REQUISITES    OF    GERMINATION. 

129.  While  the  embryo  is  sleeping  in  the  parent 
seed,  it  has  no  hold  on  the  earth  or  air.  The  circum- 
stances which  arouse  it  to  go  forth,  are  warmth^  moxs- 
ture^  and  air^  with  absence  of  light.  Its  food,  till  it  has 
grown  sufficiently  to  reach  the  earth  with  its  roots, 
and  the  air  with  its  leaves,  must  be  derived  f^om  the 
seed  in  which  it  is  shut  up.  This  food  consists  of 
starch,  gluten,  and  albumen.  Now  when  you  plant  a 
seed,  one  it  may  be  which  has  lain  dormant  ever  since 
the  days  of  the  Pharaos,  you  put  it  into  circumstances 
requisite  for  germination — ^you  give  it  the  gentle 
warmth  of  the  ground,  you  give  it  moisture ;  by  cover- 
ing it  lightly,  you  admit  the  air,  and  the  air  contains 
oxygen,  without  which  no  seed  can  germinate,  nor 
any  plant  live,  nor  any  animal  breathe ;  and  by  cover- 
ing it  to  a  sufficient  depth  you  partially  exclude  the 
light,  which  is  hurtful  to  the  early  stages  of  vegeta- 
tion. 

130.  If  you  had  sore  eyes  you  might  shrink  from 
the  light,  though  at  another  time  you  would  rejoice  in 
its  genial  influences.  So  a  plant,  till  its  first  leaves 
are  unfolded,  hates  the  light,  but  loves  it  afterwards. 

PROCESS   OF   GERMINATION. 

131.  When  you  supply  the  circumstances  requisite 
to  germination,  a  chemical  action  commences  within 
the  seed,  by  which  heat  is  evolved.  Materials  were 
storf^  up,  ready  to  act.    It  is  very  much  as  if  you 


80  VEGETABLES. 

had  a  stove  filled  with  wood  and  dry  faggots.  It  may 
have  been  so  filled  a  long  time.  But  no  heat  is  evolv- 
ed. The  stove  is  no  warmer  than  the  objects  around 
it.  If  now  you  apply  a  torch,  a  chemical  action  takes 
place  in  the  stove.  Oxygen  combines  with  the  wood. 
A  transformation  of  the  air  and  wood  into  other  sub- 
stances takes  place.  A  real  chemical  experiment  is 
performed,  one  that  would  seem  very  wonderful,  if 
we  had  not  seen  it  so  often ;  and  much  more  heat  is 
produced,  than  was  in  the  torch,  which  you  applied. 

132.  Just  so  is  it  with  the  seed.  There  were  mate- 
rials deposited,  as  in  the  stove ;  not  to  burn,  it  is  true, 
but  to  be  transformed ;  and,  in  the  transformation,  to 
evolve  heat  in  the  seed,  much  more  than  is  applied 
from  the  soil.  As  the  stove,  so  the  seed,  heats  itself, 
when  the  operation  is  once  started. 

Upon  this  evolution  of  inward  heat,  a  portion  of 
vinegar  is  formed  in  the  seed.  As  cider,  by  excessive 
fermentation,  turns  to  vinegar,  so  a  portion  of  every 
germinating  seed  turns  into  vinegar,  or  acetic  acid. 
This  IS  believed  to  attract  bases  from  the  surrounding 
soil,  and  to  form  with  them  acetates  (123),  which  are 
known  to  be  very  soluble,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a 
sort  of  pap  for  the  embryo  plant,  while  yet  it  can 
neither  reach  after,  nor  could  digest  other  food. 

133.  Simultaneously  with  the  formation  of  vinegar, 
another  substance  is  formed  in  the  seed,  called  diastase. 
This  diastase  has  the  power  to  transform  starch  into 
sugar.     That  this  is  the  object  there  can  be  no  doubt ; 


VEGETABLES.  81 

for  it  actually  performs  this  office.  In  the  dry  seed 
there  is  no  sugar.  There  is  starch,  a  substance  fami- 
liar to  all;  there  is  gluten,  the  substance  which  remains 
in  one's  teeth  after  long  chewing  a  kernel  of  wheat; 
and  there  is  albumen,  a  limpid  substance,  which  is 
recognized  in  the  white  of  an  egg ;  but  there  is  no 


134.  If  you  taste  a  corn  of  wheat  in  its  dry  state, 
you  perceive  no  sweetness ;  but  if  you  taste  it  after 
germination  has  commenced,  you  find  it  sensibly  sweet. 
The  same  change  takes  place  in  cooking  flour.  The 
flour,  unless  it  has  been  damaged,  possesses  little  or 
no  sweetness.  But  when  you  wet  it,  and  then  bake 
it,  a  part  of  its  starch  is  turned  into  sugar,  and  your 
bread  is  sweet. 

•135.  As  infants  delight  in  sweets,  and  as  the  great 
Designer  of  all  things  has  caused  a  peculiar  kind  of 
sugar  to  be  dissolved  in  the  food  destined  for  their 
first  nourishment ;  so  the  infant  plant  requires  its  pap 
to  be  sweetened,  and  the  wise  Designer  has  made  pro- 
vision for  the  exigency.  True,  he  has  not  deposited 
sugar  in  the  seed ;  for  sugar,  being  soluble,  would  be 
dissolved,  and  washed  out  by  the  winter  rains ;  but 
instead  of  sugar,  which  is  soluble,  and  consequently 
not  permanent,  he  has  deposited  starch,  which  is  in- 
soluble and  somewhat  permanent ;  and  has  at  the  same 
time  made  provision  for  its  transformation  into  sugar, 
through  the  agency  of  diastase,  at  the  very  time  when 
wanted  by  the  young  plant. 
4* 


82  VEGETABLES. 

136.  It  is  manifest  that  the  production  of  heat  in  the 
germinating  seed ;  the  formation  of  vinegar  and  dias- 
tase ;  and  the  transformation,  bj  the  latter,  of  starch 
into  sugar,  are  all  provisions  of  that  Being  who  is 
wonderful  in  counsel,  for  the  express  purpose  of  fur- 
nishing suitable  food  to  infant  plants,  when  they 
could  not  obtain  it  otherwise ;  and,  per  consequence, 
of  providing  abundant  food  for  man  and  beast. 

187.  There  is  another  fact  worthy  of  reflection.  It 
has  been  proved  by  the  most  accurate  experiments, 
that  seeds,  during  their  germination,  and  up  to  the 
time  of  their  first  putting  forth  leaves,  absorb  oxygen 
and  emit  carbonic  acid,  the  reverse  of  what  takes  place 
subsequently.  Now  why  is  this  ?  Probably  that  the 
embryo  plant  may  be  surrounded  with  carbon,  dis- 
solved in  the  water  of  the  soil,  and  may  thus  obtain 
through  its  first  roots,  that  kind  of  food,  carbon,  which 
it  is  destined  subsequently  to  receive  from  the  air 
through  its  leaves.  This  seems  very  much  like  a  pro- 
vision for  it,  on  its  way  up  into  the  air,  not  unlike 
what  would  happen,  if  a  mother,  whose  son  was  start- 
ing for  a  long  and  solitary  walk,  should  slip  into  his 
pocket  some  food  for  the  way.  Every  one  can  make 
his  own  reflections.  To  me  the  fact  seems  worthy  of 
notice. 

GROWTH  OF  PLANTS. 

138.  You  can  hardly  h^ve  failed  to  reflect,  that  much 
care  has  been  bestowed  by  the  Divine  Architect  to 
give  the  plant  a  good  start  into  being.     The  husband- 


VEGETABLES.  Si' 

man^  who  will  exercise  a  like  care,  that  his  plants  com- 
mence well,  will  be  so  far  a  co-worker  with  God. 
Plants  should  not  be  so  puny  for  a  month  after  they 
are  up,  that,  if  a  worm  or  a  bug  take  a  mouthful  from 
them,  he  will  take  the  whole.  By  a  prudent  forecast, 
in  preparing  the  ground  and  the  seeds  properly,  and 
in  selecting  a  suitable  time  for  planting,  w»e  should  en- 
deavor to  give  them  a  good  start.  We  should  use  fore- 
thought, and  take  special  care  for  their  infancy.  More 
than  is  generally  considered  depends  upon  giving  our 
plants  a  good  setting  out  on  their  summer's  career.  If 
this  is  not  the  whole  of  the  battle,  it  is  certainly  an  im- 
portant part  of  it. 

189.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  by  due  care  of  their 
infancy  you  can  make  them  so  powerful  that  they  will 
compete  successfully  with  poke  and  pig- weed  for  the 
food  of  the  soil ;  or  be  able  to  resist  the  encroach- 
ments of  horned-cattle  and  swine  ;  but  I  will  say,  that 
by  starting  them  vigorously,  you  can  make  them  put 
forth  brawny  arms,  long  roots,  and  broad  leaves,  by 
which  to  draw  for  their  productiveness  from  sources 
which  cost  you  nothing — from  the  air  and  from  the 
subsoil. 

140.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a  portion  of  that 
which  makes  plants  grow,  is  at  our  own  disposal,  as 
our  soils  and  our  manures  ;  while  another  and  about 
an  equal  portion  is  in  common  stock,  blown  about  by 
the  winds  of  heaven.  Now  if  we  work  rightly  that 
which  is  at  our  own  disposal ;  if  we  make  our  soils  deep, 
mellow  and  friable  ;  if  we  put  in  the  manures,  instead  of 


84  VEGETABLES. 

letting  them  steam  away,  or  wasli  off  from  about  our 
dwellings,  polluting  the  air  we  breathe,  and  perhaps 
sooner  or  later  the  water  we  drink ;  if  we  let  no  giant 
weeds  filch  the  food  in  our  fields ;  we  shall  draw  more 
largely  from  the  common  stock ;  for  we  make  our 
plants  more  vigorous  and  far-reaching  and  successful 
in  their  efforts  to  draw  from  the  great  store-house  of 
vegetable  food  above  and  around  us. 

141.  This  is  one  of  the  ways  in  which  Divine  Pro- 
vidence rewards  the  diligent  and  punishes  the  slothful. 
The  thorough  farmer,  by  high  cultivation,  gets  a  great 
deal  more  out  of  the  common  stock,  than  the  mere 
ordinary  farmer.  Not  all  the  corn  comes  from  the  soil ; 
not  all, from  the  soil  and  manure  together;  half  of  it 
comes  from  sources,  which  cost  nothing,  as  free  as  the 
breezes  of  heaven ;  one  acre  well  tilled  draws  more  from 
the  common  stock  of  corn-making  materials,  than  two 
acres  half  tilled ;  and  the  net  profit  on  one  acre  highly 
cultivated  is  more  than  on  five,  that  are  barely  run 
over. 

142.  We  have  all  heard  of  the  dish  being  right  side 
lip.  When  the  farmer's  field  is  mellowed  to  a  depth 
of  8,  10,  or  12  inches ;  when  the  crops  are  running 
their  roots  deep  and  their  tops  high  ;  when  every  leaf 
and  every  inch  of  surface  soil  are  sucking  in  the  rains, 
and  dews,  and  nutritious  gases ;  then  is  his  dish  right 
side  up  ;  and  he  will  catch  enough^,  not  only  to  pay  liim 
for  his  labor,  but  to  give  him  a  handsome  profit. 


VEGETABLES.  85 

GROWING  PLANTS  PURIFY  THS  AIR. 

143.  Wheu  a  plant  has  put  forth  its  first  leaves,  and 
is  no  longer  dependent  on  the  seed  for  jts  support,  it 
reverses  the  process  before  described — absorbs  car- 
bonic acid  and  emits  oxygen,  during  the  day  and  so 
long  as  light  continues,  but  still  absorbs  oxygen  and 
emits  carbonic  acid  in  the  night.  The  carbonic  acid  is 
decomposed  in  the  plant,  and  its  carbon  wrought  into 
the  solid  texture  of  the  plant,  while  its  oxygen  is  given 
off.  Other  floating  gases  are  taken  into  the  soil  and 
conveyed  to  the  plant  through  its  roots.  Thus  growing 
plants  purify  the  air  of  those  gases  which  render  it 
unhealthy  for  respiration ;  while  the  respiration  of 
men  and  beasts  enriches  it  with  those  gases  which 
promote  vegetation  ;  so  that  plants  and  animals  are 
mutually  beneficial,  each  rendering  the  air  health-giv- 
ing to  the  other.  None  breathe  so  invigorating  an  at- 
mosphere, as  the  farmer  among  his  growing  crops. 

SOURCES  OF  CARBON  AND  OTHER  FOOD  TO 
PLANTS. 

144.  During  the  growth  of  the  plant  it  takes  its 
carbon  mainly  from  the  air.  A  little  is  believed  by 
physiologists  to  pass  in  through  the  roots,  dissolved 
in  water.  Its  oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  undoubtedly 
furnished  mostly  in  the  form  of  water,  and  in  that 
form  taken  in  both  by  the  roots  and  leaves. 

145.  Nitrogen  is  furnished  to  plants  principally  in 
the  form  of  nitric  acid  and  ammonia,  both  of  which 
exist  in  the  air  and  in  rain-water. 


86  VEGETABLES. 

146.  So  fai  as  the  four  organic  elements  are  con- 
cerned, the  plant  obtains  them  from  the  air  mainly, 
either  directly  by  the  leaves,  or  through  the  surface 
soil  by  the  roots. 

14T.  It  would  not  be  far  from  the  truth  to  say  that 
the  plant  feeds  itself  about  equally  from  the  earth  and 
the  air  during  its  growth.  Its  inorganic  matter,  that 
which  remains  as  ash,  when  the  plant  is  burnt,  is  ob- 
tained wholly,  from  the  ground,  but  is  only  a  small 
part  of  the  whole,  not  more  than  from  one  to  ten  per 
cent.  It  is  probable  that  a  poor,  stinted  crop  is  de- 
rived from  the  soil  and  air  in  about  the  same  propor- 
tions as  a  luxuriant  one.  But  the  whole  of  such  a  crop 
is  a  small  affair.  A  part  of  it  is  still  smaller ;  and  I 
wish  here  to  repeat  and  impress  the  thought,  that  the 
better  we  do  by  our  plants,  in  their  ground  relations, 
the  more  they  draw  for  as  from  the  common  stock  of 
vegetable  food,  which  floats  unseen  in  the  air. 

FLOWERING  AND  SEED-BEARING  OF  PLANTS. 

148.  One  thing  should  be  noticed  with  regard  to 
the  flowering  of  plants.  The  flower-leaves,  unlike 
those  of  the  other  parts  of  the  plant,  absorb  oxygen 
by  day  as  well  as  by  night.  The  object  of  this  ar- 
rangement probably  is  to  give  them  their  beautiful 
colors.  The  oxidizing  of  various  substances  changes 
their  hue.  For  instance,  if  a  flower-leaf  have  in  it 
a  trace  of  the  protoxide  of  iron,  the  inhaling  of  oxy- 
gen will  give  it  a  brilliant  red.  Other  substances  are 
turned  by  the  same  cause  into  blue,  yellow,  violet,  &c. 


VEGETABLES.  87 

149.  As  plants  approach  their  seed-time,  their  prin- 
cipal effort  seems  to  be  concentrated  upon  the  one 
object  of  maturing  seed.  With  many  plants,  espe- 
cially "svith  the  cereals,  I  suppose  it  to  be  a  well- 
known  fact,  that  this  function  is  sometimes  performed 
better  than  their  previous  growth  would  lead  one  to 
expect,  at  others  not  as  well — that  the  growth  is  not 
to  be  taken  in  all  cases,  as  a  measure  of  the  fruitful- 
ness.  If  the  fruitfulness  exceeds  the  growth,  we  may 
safely  conclude  that  the  ground  is  better  supplied  with 
the  requisites  for  maturing  seed,  than  with  those  for 
promoting  growth.  If  the  growth  exceeds  the 
fruitfulness,  we  may  suppose  the  contrary  to  be  true ; 
provided  in  both  cases  no  other  cause  appears,  by 
which  the  disparity  can  be  accounted  for.  The  causes 
for  the  failure  of  crops  in  their  last  stage,  are  undoubt- 
edly various.  Sometimes  it  is  attributable  to  the  sea- 
son ;  the  early  part  of  summer  being  favorable  to 
luxuriant  growth  ;  the  latter,  unpropitious  to  the  ma- 
turing of  the  seed.  Oftener,  I  believe,  it  is  owing  to 
some  mismanagement.  With  regard  to  the  corn  crop, 
I  have  always  thought  that  the  putting  of  a  little  stim- 
ulating manure  in  the  hill,  without  thoroughly  pul- 
verizing and  enriching  the  whole  field,  was  precisely 
adapted  to  produce  a  large  growth  of  stalks  with  little 
corn.  I  should  anticipate  that  the  effect  of  such  manur- 
ing would  cease  at  the  wrong  time,  not  solely  from  the 
exhaustion  of  the  manure,  but  because  it  was  confined 
to  one  place,  instead  of  being  diffused  through  the 
soil.  Corn  roots  do  not  curl  down  under  the  hill ; 
they  spread  over  the  field  as  widely  and  as  deeply  as 
the  ground  has  been  prepared  to  receive  them.    Why 


88  VEGETABLES. 

sliould  the  manure  be  in  one  place — immediately  un- 
der tlie  hill — unless  you  mean  to  discourage  the  roots 
from  taking  a  broad  range  in  search  of  food  ? 

LATE  HOEING  INJURIOUS. 

150.  I  need  not  say  here  that  another  bad  practice 
is  that  of  letting  the  weeds  live  and  compete  with  the 
corn  for  the  strength  of  the  soil,  for  I  suppose  no  such 
practice  obtains  among  us.  But  there  is  a  practice,  not 
much  better,  which  prevails  in  many  places,  that  of 
killing  the  weeds  at  so  late  a  period  as  nearly  to  kill 
the  corn  too.  I  have  seen  men  hoeing  corn  at  so  late 
a  day,  that  if  the  corn  had  been  mine,  I  would  have 
thanked  them  heartily  to  let  it  alone. 

151.  If  you  cut  off  the  roots  of  a  tree  it  will  send 
out  two  new  roots  for  every  one  that  is  cut  off,  and 
the  tree  may  not  be  injured.  Some  think  it  will  be- 
come more  vigorous.  But  if  you  cut  the  roots  of 
corn,  after  it  has  silked  out,  and  thus  force  it  into  the 
business  of  forming  new  roots,  at  the  very  time  when 
it  should  be  maturing  its  seeds,  you  commit  a  fatal 
mistake.  You  might  just  about  as  well  bleed  your 
horse  half  to  death,  and  work  him  hard  in  order  to 
fatten  him,  especially  if  you  would  keep  him  rather 
short  the  while,  as  corn  is  of  course  kept  short,  while 
it  has  few  unmutilated  roots  to  convey  it  food.  ' 

STRUCTURE  AND  CIRCULATION  OP  PLANTS. 

152.  Of  the  structure  and  circulation  of  plants  I 


VEGETABLES.  89" 

have  space  to  say  but  little,  as  the  more  important 
matter  of  their  decay  and  return  to  the  soil  is  yet  un- 
touched. 

153.  With  regard  to  the  structure  of  plants,  I  will 
refer  you  to  our  common  trees,  not  exactly  as  a  sam- 
ple for  others,  but  as  affording  some  data  from  which 
you  can  reason,  and  observe  for  yourselves  both  re- 
semblances and  differences. 

154.  The  stem  of  a  tree  consists  of  woody  fibre, 
formed  around  the  pith,  an  inner  bark  around  that, 
and  an  outer  bark  around  the  whole. 

155.  The  pith  is  a  spongy,  soft  substance,  com- 
mencing far  down  in  the  roots,  coming  together  at  the 
base  of  the  stem,  then  continuing  upward,  dividing 
and  subdividing  itself  in  the  branches  and  twigs,  till 
it  reaches  their  extremities.  Some  mysterious  con- 
nection seems  to  be  kept  up  between  the  pith  and  the 
inner  bark,  by  means  of  a  set  of  pores,  running  from 
the  pith  outward  every  way,  like  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel. 

156.  The  roots  may  be  regarded  as  the  extension 
of  the  stem  downwards,  and  the  branches  uS  its  ex- 
tension upwards.  The  wood  is  not  as  compact  as 
many  may  suppose.  Its  more  solid  parts  even  consist 
of  an  immense  number  of  tubes  running  side  by  side 
from  the  lower  to  the  upper  extremities  of  the  tree, 
varying  in  size  in  different  parts,  and  each  one  lined 
with  a  substance  different  from  itself,  like  the  tinning 


90  VEGETABLES. 

of  an  iron  kettle.     It  is  througli  these  tliat  the  sap 
passes  upwards. 

157.  If  we  commence  at  the  extremities  of  the  roots 
and  examine,  we  shall  find  that  the  extremities,  called 
spongioleSj  consist  only  of  a  bark  and  a  porous  sub- 
stance enclosed.  This  porous  substance  extends  out 
to  the  end  of  the  bark,  and  is  adapted  to  the  absorp- 
tion of  water  and  watery  solutions.  Nothing  enters 
a  tree  or  other  plant  that  is  not  perfectly  dissolved,  as 
limpid  and  transparent  as  the  solution  of  an  ounce  of 
salt  or  sugar  in  a  gallon  of  pure  water. 

158.  If  we  trace  the  rootlets  from  the  spongioles 
upward,  we  shall  find  them  gradually  increasing  in 
size  and  hardness,  and  coming  together,  till  instead  of 
millions,  there  will  be  only  a  few ;  becoming  more 
and  more  Like  the  wood  of  the  trunk ;  and  before 
reaching  the  stem,  invested  like  the  tree  itself  with 
a  double  bark,  and  having  like  that  a  pith  in  the 
centre. 

159.  As  we  ascend  we  shall  find  the  branches  and 
twigs  becoming  more  porous  as  they  recede  from  the 
stem.  Were  we  to  burn  the  small  branches  and 
leaves,  we  should  find  them  to  contain  three  or  four 
times  as  much  ash  as  the  solid  wood,  and  of  the  best 
quality. 

160.  The  leaf-stems  are  a  continuation  of  the  twig. 
They  are  bundles  of  tubes  enclosed  in  bark ;  and 
these  tubes  connect  with  those  of  the  wood  below. 


VEGETABLES.  9t' 

Througn  these,  the  sap,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
blood  of  the  tree,  flows  upward  into  the  leaves.  The 
leaves  may  be  compared  to  the  lungs  of  animals.  The 
office  of  the  former  is  to  bring  the  sap  and  the.  air 
into  contact,  as  that  of  the  latter  is.  to  bring  the  air 
into  contact  with  the  blood.  As  the  blood  is  strikingly 
modified  and  changed  in  the  lungs,  so  is  the  sap  in  the 
leaves.  The  lungs  are  a  net- work  of  blood  and  air 
vessels  surrounded  by  a  membranous  tissue.  So  also 
the^  leaves  are  a  net- work  of  woody  fibre,  continued 
from  the  leaf-stem,  and  covered  above  and  below  with 
a  spongy  membrane.  The  upper  side  of  the  leaf 
emits  gases  and  vapor  into  the  air ;  the  under  side 
gathers  in  from  the  air  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
plant 

161.  When  the  sap  has  circulated  through  the  leaf, 
it  commences  a  retrograde  course  towards  the  earth. 
It  is  not  always  a  downward  course.  That  depends 
upon  the  position  of  the  limbs.  Its  return  to  the  earth 
is  by  the  inner  bark ;  and  its  depositions  by  the  way 
form  the  annual  layer  of  wood. 

DECAY  AND  PRODUCTS  OF  PLANTS. 

162.  In  the  present  order  of  things,  whatever  lives, 
must  die.  Men,  brutes,  and  plants,  live  on  their  pre- 
decessors. The  floating  matter  of  the  universe  is  un- 
dergoing a  succession  of  life  and. death.  Probably  all 
the  dead  matter  around  us,  all  that  we  can  see,  has 
been  alive  some  time,  much  of  it  a  thousand  times. 
The  succession  of  living  beings,  vegetable  and  animal, 


92  VEGETABLES. 

is  kept  up  by  using  the  same  matter  over  and  over 


163.  The  plant  in  its  growth,  devours  other  plants, 
and  even  animals ;  for  it  finds  no  richer  food  than 
dead  animal  matter ;  but  in  its  turn,  it  is  destined  to 
be  devoured  either  by  animals  or  plants,  and  pretty 
surely  by  both.  A  particle  of  dead  matter  now  in  the 
soil  may  be  clover  next  summer,  beef  next  winter,  and 
clover  again  in  six  mo;iths.  There  is  a  restless  activ- 
ity in  the  matter  which  composes  the  surface  of  the 
earth  and  its  surroundings. 


164.  When  plants  have  passed  their  maturity,  they 
yield,  among  their  earliest  products  of  decay,  called 
proximate  constituents,  wood,  starch,  gum,  sugar,  glu- 
ten, caseine,  and  albumen.  Oat  of  these  grow  the 
secondary  products,  alcohol,  vinegar,  and  too  many 
others  to  be  named.  The  secondary  products  of  de- 
cay are  counted  by  thousands  and  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands, if  not  by  millions.  Notice  cannot  be  taken 
of  them  here.  But  those  primary  products  which  I 
have  named  are  of  great  importance,  as  forming,  di- 
rectly or  indirectly,  almost  the  entire  food  for  the  hu- 
man race,  and  for  all  the  animals  that  live. 

165.  Starch  is  of  course  pretty  well  known.  It  is, 
however,  known  by  different  names,  as  it  is  derived 
from  different  plants^  as  potato  starch,  wheat  starch, 
&c.  Sometimes  it  takes  the  name  of  the  country 
whence  it  either  is,  or  professes  to  be,  imported,  as 
Poland  starch.     That  which  is  obtained  from  the  pith 


VEGETABLES.  98 

of  the  palm  tree  is  called  in  commerce  Sago;  that 
from  the  roots  of  the  Maranta  arundinacea  of  the  West 
Indies  is  known  as  Arrow-root ;  and  that  from  the  root 
of  the  manioc  tree  is  the  well-known  tapioca  of  the 
shops.  All  these — starch,  sago,  arrow-root,  and  tapi- 
oca— are  substantially  the  same  thing.  They  are  all 
washed  with  cold  water  from  the  substances  in  which 
they  are  respectively  found. 

♦ 

166.  Starch,  gum,  and  sugar  contain  no  nitrogen 
They  are  all  characterized  by  the  letters  CHO,  signi- 
fying carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

167.  On  the  other  hand,  gluten,  caseine,  and  albu- 
men are  nitrogenous  substances.  All  of  them  contain 
nitrogen,  and  all  contain  sulphur  and  a  very  little 
phosphorus.  Their  principal  ingredients  being  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  they  are  char- 
acterized by  the  letters  CHON,  expressive  of  their 
composition. 

168.  One  or  more  of  these  nitrogenous  substances 
exist  in  all  plants. 

169.  Gluten  is  a  very  important  constituent  of 
wheat.  It  is  insoluble  in  water.  Hence,  if  you  chew 
a  kernel  of  wheat,  the  gluten  will  remain  in  the 
mouth  after  the  rest  will  have  disappeared ;  or,  if  you 
wash  wheat  flour  over  a  cloth,  the  gluten  will  remain 
on  the  cloth,  a  tough,  stringy,  grayish  substance, 
while  the  starch  and  the  albumen  will  pass  through. 


94  VEGETABLES. 

The  gluten  is  the  most  nourishing  part  of  wheat ;  and 
that  wheat  is  best  which  contains  most  of  it. 

170.  Caseine^  which  strongly  resembles  curd,  is 
found  abundantly  in  peas  and  beans.  It  is  soluble  in 
water,  and  will  coagulate,  like  the  curd  in  milk,  if  an 
acid,  as  vinegar  or  rennet,  be  added. 

171.  Albumen  abounds  in  oily  seeds,  as  poppy 
seed,  flax-seed,  &c.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  but  coagu- 
lates, like  the  white  of  eggs,  if  boiled. 

172.  You  can  easily  separate  the  constituents  of 
flour,  and  examine  them  in  the  following  manner : 

173.  Wash  two  or  three  ounces  of  fine  flour  on  a 
piece  of  linen  or  cotton  cloth  of  medium  thickness, 
with  as  many  pints  of  water.  Pour  on  fhe  water,  a 
little  at  a  time,  and  stir  the  flour  gently  on  the  cloth, 
letting  the  water  fall  into  a  pan  below.  What  re- 
mains on  the  cloth  is  gluten.  After  the  water  has 
stood  in  the  pan  long  enough  to  become  perfectly 
clear,  pourdt  into  a  k-ettle  so  gently  as  not  to  disturb 
the  sediment.  What  remains  in  the  pan  is  starch. 
Then  heat  the  kettle  till  the  water  boils,  and  the  albu- 
men will  be  seen  in  a  coagulated  state,  having  some 
resemblance  to  the  white  of  an  egg  after  being  par- 
tially boiled. 

174.  I  have  already  stated  that  gluten,  albumen, 
and  caseine  are  nitrogenous  substances,  and  that  they 


VEGETABLES.  dS 

contain  a  little  sulphur  and  a  trace  of  phosphorus 
(CHONSP). 

175.  Sugar,  gum,  and  starch,  on  the  other  hand, 
contain  no  nitrogen,  and  are  therefore  less  nutritious 
as  articles  of  food.  The  elements  are  the  same  in 
each,  and  in  the  same  proportion  as  represented  be- 
low: 

Starch, C'^H^oO^o 

Gum,       -        -        -        -        -        Ci^HioQio 
Sugar, C'^H'oO'o 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  these 
three  substances  exist  in  the  same  proportion  as  in 
water.  The  same  is  true  of  woody  fibre  and  of  many 
uther  substances.  They  consist  of  carbon  and  the 
elements  of  water.  I  ought  perhaps  to  state  that  the 
sugar  before  characterized  is  cane  sugar.  There  are 
other  kinds  of  sugar.  Grape  sugar,  for  instance,  is 
differently  constituted ;  the  sugar  of  milk  is  still  dif- 
ferent ;  and  that  of  the  ash  tree  (the  manna  of  com- 
merce) is  different  from  either. 

TRANSFORMATIONS. 

176.  The  fact  that  starch,  sugar,  and  gum  are  the 
same  in  chemical  constitution,  and  that  they  are  trans- 
formable one  into  the  other,  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable discoveries  of  the  last  half  century.  That 
they  are  identical  in  constitution,  and  that  they  are 
transformable,  is  quite  certain.  The  transformations 
are  actually  going  on  in  the  operations  of  nature,  as 


96  VEGETABLES. 

in  germinating  seeds,  in  the  sap  of  the  maple  tree,  and 
in  ripening  fruits.  And,  what  is  more,  these  trans- 
formations can  be  imitated  by  the  chemist.  You  may 
take  an  ounce  of  starch  and  turn  it  all  into  gum ;  you 
may  then  turn  this  gum  into  sugar.  Nor  need  you 
stop  here ;  you  may  dissolve  this  sugar  in  water,  and 
then,  if  you  expose  it  to  air  and  warmth,  and  add  to  it 
a  single  particle  of  yeast,  you  will  transform  it  into  alco- 
hol. And  you  need  riot  stop  here ;  for,  if  you  let  the 
fermentation  proceed  one  step  farther,  you  transform 
the  alcohol  into  vinegar.  You  cannot  change  starch 
into  vinegar  directly,  but  you  can  do  it  by  the  route 
I  have  described.  You  may  even  go  back  one  step 
farther,  and  commence  with  woody  fibre.  You  may 
change  woody  fibre  into  starch.  Your  routine  of 
transformations  then  would  be,  woody  fibre,  starch, 
gum,  sugar,  alcohol,  vinegar.  It  should  be  remarked, 
however,  that  the  constitution  of  the  two  last  becomes 
changed.  Alcohol  and  vinegar  are  of  the  same  ele-. 
ments,  but  not  in  the  same  proportions  as  the  others. 

177.  Such  are  some  of  the  proximate  constituents 
of  plants,  and  a  few  of  the  numerous  and  wonderful 
transformations  to  which  they  are  subject. 

178.  Sooner  or  later  all  these  substances,  which 
plants  have  so  curiously  elaborated  out  of  dead  mat- 
ter, are  destroyed.  Their  organic  elements  return  to 
the  air ;  their  inorganic,  to  the  soil ;  both  to  the  place 
whence  they  came ;  both,  as  undistinguished  atoms, 
to  be  used  in  building  up  new  plants  and  new  ani- 
mals, which,  in  their  turn,  are  to  perish  and  become 


VEGETABLES.  97 

food  for  others  still ;  and  so  on  in  successive  rounds, 
just  so  long  as  the  Almighty  Worker  of  the  universe 
shall  decide  to  uphold  the  current  order  of  things. 
The  plants  and  animals,  including  men,  that  have 
been  in  ages  past,  live  in  those  that  now  are;  and 
those  that  now  are,  will  live  in  those  yet  to  be.  Death 
is  the  parent  of  life. 


CHAPTER    IV 
ANIMALS    AND    THEIR    PRODUCTS. 


CONNECTION  BETWEEN    SOILS,   PLANTS,    AND 
ANIMALS. 

179.  In  a  former  part  of  this  work  were  described 
about  20  substances,  all  of  which,  either  as  permanent 
ingredients  of  the  soil,  or  less  permanently  connected 
with  it,  contribute  to  the  growth  of  plants.  It  may 
now  be  stated  that  the  permanent  ingredients  of  soils 
are  fewer  in  number.  Soils  are  substantially  made  up 
of  organic  matter,  potash^  soda^  lime,  magnesia,  oxides  of 
iron,  oxide  of  mayiganese,  sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid^ 
carhonic  acid,  chlorine,  silica  and  alumina, 

180.  These  twelve  constitute  soils.  If  we  omit  the 
last,  the  remaining  eleven  constitute  plants ;  and  if  we 
strike  off  the  last  two,  the  remaining  ten  constitute 
animals.  Alumina  stops  in  the  soil ;  silica,  e±cept  in 
exceedingly  minute  quantities,  stops  with  the  plant ; 
the  other  ten  pass  from  the  soil  into  the  plant ;  then 
from  the  plant  into  the  animal ;  and  finally  back  into 
the  soil.     From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  when  we  ex- 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  99 

pend  crops  on  the  farm,  we  return  to  the  soil  all  we 
took  from  it,  and  as  much  more  as  the  growing  plants 
draw  from  the  air,  which  is  nearly  all  their  organic 
matter.  In  this  way  a  farm  should  be  constantly 
gaining  in  fertility ;  for  on  the  supposition  that  we 
sell  nothing  from  the  farm,  we  keep  all  the  inorganic 
parts  of  the  soil  at  home,  and  by  means  of  growing 
plants  we  are  all  the  while  gathering  inorganic  matter 
from  the  air  and  incorporating  it  with  the  soil ;  so  that 
the  soil,  treated  thus,  would  remain  equally  rich  in 
the  inorganic  (mineral)  parts,  and  be  growing  every 
year  richer  in  the  organic  parts.  It  will  be  seen  also, 
that  if  we  sell  off  crops,  or  anything  that  is  made  from 
crops,  as  beef,  pork,  butter,  cheese,  the  soil  must  be 
from  that  time  becoming  poorer  in  the  inorganic  ingre- 
dients, unless  we  procure  fertilizers  from  off  the  farm 
and  substitute  them  for  those  which  we  send  away ; 
for  when  we  sell  any  product  of  the  farm,  we  sell  a 
part  of  the  soil ;  not  enough  in  a  single  pound  of  but- 
ter to  diminish  sensibly  the  quantity  left,  but  enough 
in  a  century,  in  all  the  butter  that  may  be  sold  from 
cows  fed  on  a  single  pasture,  to  leave  that  pasture  en- 
tirely destitute  of  certain  ingredients,  without  which 
good  butter  cannot  be  made.  So  if  the  hay  from  a 
mowing  was  to  be  sold  off  for  many  years  and  nothing 
returned,  certain  ingredients  of  the  soiWould  become 
so  exhausted,  that  little  or  no  more  hay  could  be 
grown  on  that  soil ;  or  if  the  corn,  wheat,  or  rye  were 
to  be  sold  from  a  soil,  the  result  would  be  the  same. 
If  a  soil  were  eminently  good,  it  would  resist  bad 
treatment  a  long  time,  but  sooner  or  later  it  would  be 
exhausted.     The  farmer  who  should  have  sold  all  his 


\ 


too  ANIMALS  ANL   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

crops  for  a  long  time,  and  put  nothing  back,  would 
find  that  he  had  sold  his  farm  also — sold  it  piece- 
meal. 


PREVENTION. 

181.  To  prevent  so  sad  a  result,  two  modes  are  re- 
sorted to.  One  is  to  procure  foreign  fertilizers  enough 
to  make  a  full  substitute  for  what  is  carried  off  from 
the  farm.  It  may  be  wise  to  adopt  this  course  near 
large  cities,  where  produce  is  always  high,  and  where 
various  fertilizers  can  be  bought  cheaply  and  conveyed 
to  the  farm  with  a  small  expense — brought  home, 
perhaps,  by  the  same  team  which  draws  the  produce 
to  market.  But  with  the  great  mass  of  farmers,  the 
other  mode  commends  itself  as  the  only  one  applicable 
in  their  case.  It  is,  to  expend  their  produce  r}%ainly  on 
the  farm^  to  preserve  every  particle  of  manure^  and  to 
compost  it  with  peat^  roadr scrapings^  <f  c,  so  as  greatly 
to  increase  the  quantity,  and  to  keep  the  quality  up  hy 
adding  plaster^  salt,  lime  and  ashes. 

182.  In  this  way,  a  farm  can  be  made  increasingly 
fertile ;  and  if  the  best  animals  be  selected,  and  the 
best  modes  of  feeding  be  adopted,  the  annual  income 
of  the  farm  caSi  be  made  nearly  as  great  as  by  selling 
the  hay,  grain  and  roots.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
animals  are  of  inferior  qualities,  and  the  modes  of 
feeding  are  wasteful  and  ill  suited  to  the  nature  of  the 
animal,  not  more  than  half  of  the  estimated  value  of 
crops  are  returned  in  the  growth,  products  and  labor 
of  the  animals  that  consume  them.     These  considera- 


ANIMALS   AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  IGl 

tions  are  important  to  the  practical  farmer.  His  ob- 
ject in  feeding  is  to  keep  the  land  productive,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  get  the  value  of  the  produce  in  the 
increased  worth  of  whatever  consumes  it. 


KINDS  OF  ANIMALS  TO  BE  KEPT. 

183.  The  animals  usually  kept  among  us  are  horses, 
horned  cattle,  sheep,  swine  and  poultry.  It  is  worthy 
of  inquiry,  whether  mules  ought  not  in  some  cases  to  be 
added  to  this  list.  The  arguments  in  favor  of  it  are, 
that  the  mule  is  very  hardy,  little  liable  to  disease, 
capable  of  thriving  on  coarse  food,  requiring  less  food 
than  the  horse,  long-lived,  and  able  to  perform  great 
labor.  For  these  reasons,  it  would  seem  that  for  some 
purposes  the  labor  of  mules  might  be  advantageously 
substituted  for  that  of  the  horse.  But  for  general  pur- 
poses, including  the  transportation  of  persons,  the 
horse  must  remain  in  favor ;  and  it  may  be  laid  down 
that  horses,  horned  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  are  the 
animals  to  consume  mainly  the  produce  of  American 
farmers. 

184.  Animals  may  be  distributed,  with  regard  to 
the  return  they  make  to  the  owner  for  the  food  and 
care  given  them,  into  three  classes :  those  which  return 
labor  only,  those  v^hich  return  both  labor  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  their  bodies,  and  those  which  return  the  pro- 
ducts of  their  bodies  only.  To  the  first  class  belong 
the  horse  and  the  mule.  There  are  some  men,  per- 
haps, who  have  the  skill  and  address  to  make  these 
animals  do  work  enough  to  pay  for  their  care  and 


j.^  ANIMAl^S  AKD  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

feed,  and  at  the  same  time  increase  in  value.  But  as 
a  general  rule,  if  the  farmer  is  to  be  paid  the  worth 
of  the  haj  and  grain  they  consume,  he  must  take  it 
out  in  work ;  and  hence,  with  the  exception  of  those 
who  make  it  a  business  to  prepare  these  animals  for 
the  market,  and  of  some  others,  who  can  afford  to 
keep  fine  horses  for  the  pleasure  of  driving  them,  it  is 
unquestionably  a  good  rule,  to  keep  no  more  of  these 
than  can  be  pretty  constantly  employed. 

185.  Working  oxen  belong  to  the  second  class  The 
return  they  make  the  farmer  is  labor  and  growth. 
Like  the  horse,  they  can  be  made  profitable,  as  work- 
ers ;  and  unlike,  the  horse,  they  may  be  profitable,  as 
idlers.  Perhaps  few  animals  pay  better  for  their  keep- 
ing, than  oxen,  worked  reasonably  till  August,  and 
then  turned  into  a  good  pasture  to  be  prepared  for 
the  stall.  They  should  seldom  be  put  to  the  utmost 
of  their  strength.  If  worked  with  judgment,  and 
kindly  cared  for,  they  will  do  more  for  their  owner  in 
the  long  run,  and  will  be  steadily  increasing  in  value, 
till  7  or  8  years  of  age,  when  they  should  be  prepared 
for  the  market,  and  their  place  supplied  by  those  that 
are  younger. 

186.  To  the  third  class  belong  cows,  young  stock, 
sheep,  and  swine.  The  return  expected  from  these  is 
the  body  of  the  animal,  when  grown  and  fattened,  or 
some  product  of  the  animal ;  as  butter,  cheese  and  wool. 
Every  farmer  knows  that  some  animals  will  eat  much 
and  grow  little,  while  others  will  consume  less  and 
grow  more ;  he  knows  that  there  are  some  cows,  which 


ANIMALS  AND  THKIR  PRODUCTS.  103 

will  give  little  value  in  milk,  while  others  will  give 
much ;  that  some  sheep  give  almost  valueless  fleeces, 
others  valuable  ones  ;  and  that  some  breeds  of  swine 
are  all-consuming,  but  ever  lean.  It  makes  a  wide  dif- 
ference, whether  food  be  thrown  out  at  random,  or  be 
given  with  regularity  and  discretion ;  and  whether 
animals  be  made  comfortable  by  adapting  circum- 
stances to  their  several  natures,  or  be  left  to  continual 
suffering.  The  farmer  knows,  or  may  know,  that  if  he 
selects  the  consumers  of  his  produce  wisely  and  keeps 
them  properly,  they  will  give  him  a  return  of  some  10 
dollars  a  ton  for  his  hay,  6  per  cent,  or  more  for  the 
value  of  his  pastures ;  and  a  fair  remuneration  for  his 
corn  and  roots,  together  with  a  moderate  compensation 
for  his  care  for  them ;  while  if  he  neglects  these  con- 
ditions, he  gets  but  half  the  value  of  his  hay,  grain, 
roots  and  pasturing,  and  nothing  for  his  trouble,  un- 
less it  be  the  pleasure  of  railing  and  complaining  that 
his  is  an  unprofitable  business. 

GENERAL  TREATMENT  OP  ANIMALS. 

187.  The  conditions  of  farming  are  absolute  and  un- 
alterable. We  have  seen  that  the  farmer  cannot  sell 
the  products  of  his  fields  abroad.  He  must  dispose  of 
them  mainly  at  home.  The  inmates  of  his  barn,  fold, 
and  sty,  must  be  his  pay-masters.  They  are  "  good 
pay"  if  he  manages  wisely.  If  he  do!?s  not,  he  has  no 
right  to  complain,  and  thus  sink  his  profession  in  the 
estimation  of  his  sons  and  his  neighbors.  As  the  far 
mer's  animals  are  his  customers  and  his  pay-masters, 
he  should  use  them  well  for  his  own  sake.     There  is  a 


104  A.NIMALS   AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

higher  motive  for  using  tliem  well.  God  has  made  them 
sensitive  beings,  capable  of  gratitude  and  of  resentment, 
of  great  enjoyment  and  of  intense  suffering.  The  gift 
of  them,  as  such,  to  man.  implies  that  they  are  to  be 
treated  kindly.  He  who  treats  them  otherwise  offends 
his  Maker.  To  inflict  needless  pain  upon  a  brute,  or  to 
make  him  less  a  creature  of  enjoyment  than  he  is  ca- 
pable of  being,  consistently  with  our  own  interest,  is, 
to  say  the  least,  to  be  brutish.  High  moral  obliga- 
tion concurs  with  our  own  interest,  in  requiring  at  our 
hand  a  considerate,  judicious,  kind  treatment  of  do- 
mestic animals. 

188.  We  should  be  observant  of  the  habits  of  those 
animals,  and  attentive  to  their  wants.  If  you  see  a 
cow  gnawing  a  bone,  you  may  depend  upon  it,  a  sharp 
necessity  impels  her  to  it;  you  have  drawn  phos- 
phate of  lime  from  her  system  in  milk  till  she  feels  an 
indescribable  longing  for  that  substance.  She  at  least 
cannot  describe  it,  except  by  the  action  of  trying  hour 
after  hour  to  masticate  a  bone.  It  is  probably  a  feel- 
ing, or  rather  a  want,  not  unlike  that  of  the  drunkard, 
when  the  state  of  his  system  is  such  that  he  would  al- 
most barter  soul  and  body  for  a  taste  of  spirit.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  milch  cows  are  often  great 
sufferers,  when  kept  in  old  worn-out  pastures,  for  the 
want  of  phosphate  of  lime.  It  should  be  given  to 
them  in  the  form  of  bone-dust.  If  a  cow  or  an  ox  is 
seen  licking  the  ground,  it  indicates  a  want  of  some- 
thing (in  most  cases  salt),  which  should  be  given  in  a 
more  eatable  form.  So  there  are  a  thousand  indica- 
tions, which  the  attentive  farmer  will  observe ;  and 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  106 

from  them  he  will  learn  the  wants  of  his  animals,  and 
learn  to  supply  them. 

189.  It  is  almost  as  important  that  animals  should 
be  kept  warm  in  winter,  and  have  cool  shades  to  re- 
sort to  in  summer,  as  that  they  should  have  plenty  of 
food.  The  food  that  will  keep  one  of  them  growing, 
when  comfortable,  will  at  best  only  keep  him  station- 
ary, if  suffering  with  cold.  So  it  is  with  regard  to 
other  matters  of  comfort.  A  swine,  for  instance,  finds 
it  very  comfortable  to  wallow  in  filth.  He  should  be 
provided  for,  accordingly.  But  he  finds  it  very  un- 
comfortable to  be  confined  to  such  lodgings;  and  if  so 
confined,  he  will  not  pay  for  his  keeping.  No  animal 
loves  better  to  retire  to  a  snug,  dry  nest.  This  should 
always  be  furnished  for  him.  A  swine  that, is  kept 
shivering  in  his  own  filth,  will  eat  out  during  one  of 
our  long  cold  winters  twice  what  his  body  will  be 
worth  in  the  spring,  when  if  he  had  been  kept  warm 
and  dry,  he  would  have  paid  for  his  keeping,  and  the 
owner  might  have  sold  his  pork  at  a  fair  profit.  Per- 
haps no  maxim  is  more  manifestly  true,  than  that  duty 
and  interest  both  concur  in  requiring  a  kind  attention 
to  the  wants  of  domestic  animals.  The  individual 
who  is  slow  to  perceive,  and  slower  to  minister  to  these 
wants,  will  find  the  inmates  of  the  farm-yard  'poor  pay- 
masters, 

THE  FEEDING  O^  ANIMALS. 


190.  Common  salt  is  essential  to  all  animals.     As  it 
nsti 
5* 


forms  a  constituent  of  soils,  and  enters  from  the  soil 


106  ANIMALS  AND   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

into  plants,  it  is  thus  furnished,  in  minute  portions,  to 
domestic  animals.  But  all  experience  has  shown  that 
they  require  more  salt  than  is  thus  furnished.  This  is 
indicated  by  the  intense  hankering  they  manifest,  when 
long  deprived  of  it.  How  much  they  need,  beyond 
that  naturally  contained  in  their  food,  no  one  has  been 
able  to  decide.  The  animals  themselves  know  best, 
and  it  should  therefore  be  left  to  their  own  choice. 
If  not  deprived  of  it  too  long,  they  will  always  eat 
just  as  much  as  is  for  the  interest  of  the  owner  that 
they  should ;  and  no  precaution  is  necessary,  except 
that  when  a  neglected  animal  is  brought  home,  he 
should  not  be  admitted  to  a  full  supply  at  once. 

191.  Some  have  supposed  that  cattle  while  being 
fattened  on  hay  and  roots,  especially  on  potatoes, 
should  be  allowed  to  drink  but  little.  Whether  this 
opinion  is  well  founded,  I  very  much  doubt.  In  all 
other  cases,  cattle  and  sheep  should  have  water  plenti-* 
fully,  and  where  they  can  get  it  without  fear  or  dan- 
ger. If  possible,  it  should  be  pure  fresh  water;  and 
should  be  in  the  barn-yard. 

192.  The  foregoing  remarks  apply  equally  to  all 
kinds  of  stock.  With  regard  to  solid  food,  a  difference 
should  be  made,  accordingly  as  animals  are  kept  for 
one  or  another  purpose.  As  a  general  rule,  the  finest 
and  earliest  cut  hay  should  be  given  to  milch  cows — 
those  in  milk  at  the  time; — and  they  should  have  as 
much  as  they  will  eat.  Grood,  substantial  hay,  not 
late-cut,  nor  in  the  least  smoky,  should  be  given  to 
working  cattle  and  horses.     Dry  cows  may  be  turned 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  107 

off  with  poorer  hay  in  part ;  and  young  stock  should 
have  si  variety  of  food.  Yery  few  animals,  if  kept 
through  the  winter  on  good  hay,  worth  perhaps  10 
dollars  a  ton,  will  pay  for  the  hay  which  they  consume, 
in  tkeir  increased  value  in  the  spring. 

193.  As  stock  cattle  generally  rise  more  or  less 
during  the  winter,  their  increased  value  in  the  spring 
must  depend  partly  on  their  growth  and  partly  on  the 
rise  of  this  kind  of  property.  Thus,  if  a  steer  weigh 
eight  cwt.  in  the  fall,  and  is  worth  four  dollars  the 
cwt.  live  weight,  his  full  value  would  be  thirty-two 
dollars.  If  he  weigh  nine  cwt.  the  next  spring,  and 
be  worth  five  dollars  the  cwt.,  his  spring  value  would 
be  forty-five  dollars,  giving  an  increase  of  thirteen 
dollars.  Now,  this  is  a  high  estimate  of  increase  in 
value,  and  yet  at  this  rate  the  owner  would  not  have 
realized  the  value  of  hay  which  that  steer  would  have 
consumed  by  considerable,  provided  he  had  been  kept 
on  good  hay  and  nothing  else.  It  may  be  put  down 
as  a  settled  point,  that  stock  (including  oxen  not  at 
work,  cows  not  giving  milk,  steers,  heifers,  and  calves), 
if  kept  on  hay  only"5  do  not,  as  a  general  thing, 
pay  for  their  wintering.  The  average  increase  in  the 
value  of  the  stock  is  but  about  half  the  estimated 
value  of  the  hay.  This  has  hitherto  been  a  sad  leak 
in  farming.     The  question  is,  must  it  continue  ? 

194.  A  farmer  puts  up  fifty  tons  of  hay ;  in  the  fall 
it  would  havG  sold  for  $500  ;  his  cattle  eat  it,  and  are 
worth  $250  more  in  the  spring  than  the  fall  before. 
The  manure  pays  him  well  for  the  labor  of  feeding, 


108  ANIMALS  AND   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

and  not  much  more.  There  is  then  a  loss  of  $250 
This  is  a  terrible  drawback  on  the  profits  of  farming. 
We  suppose  that  horses  and  working  oxen  pay  for 
their,  wintering  in  work.  Milch  cows  pay  for  their 
keeping  in  milk.  But  stock  cattle,  fed  on  hay  only, 
paj^  in  their  increased  value  in  the  spring  for  only  half 
the  hay  they  consume.  If  fed  in  the  very  best  man- 
ner, and  kept  as  warm  and  comfortable  as  could  be 
desired,  they  require  at  least  2  per  cent,  of  their  live 
weight  of  good  hay  daily,  in  order  to  keep  them  in  a 
thriving  condition  ;  and  the  cost  of  this,  at  $10  a  ton, 
is  more  than  the  average  increase  in  value  by  nearly 
one-half  This  loss,  which  has  long  been  felt  and  bit- 
terly complained  of,  must  be  avoided  by  resorting  to 
mixed  food.  One  pound  of  Indian  meal  is  of  about 
equal  value  for  feeding  with  4  lb.  of  good  hay,  6  lb. 
of  second  quality  hay,  8  lb.  of  oat  straw  cut,  10  lb.  of 
carrots,  and  16  fb.  of  turnips. 

195.  Here  are  six  kinds  of  food  for  cattle,  to  which 
may  be  added  corn-stalks,  making  seven.  No  one  of 
the  seven  can  be  fed  alone  to  growing  cattle  with  pay- 
ing results.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  a  just  inter- 
spersion  of  the  whole  may  not  pay  well.  A  good 
housewife  often  sets  before  her  family  costly  dishes, 
but  she  takes  care  to  vary  them,  and  to  intersperse  such 
as  are  less  expensive,  but  so  well  "  got  up,"  and  with 
all  so  timely,  that  they  may  be  acceptable.  So  it  is 
with  the  wise  feeder.  Suppose  he  has  twenty-five 
head  of  stock  cattle,  averaging  9  or  10  cwt.  live  weight 
each.  If  he  feed  them  on  the  best  of  hay  three  times 
pach  day,  he  \7ill  find  that  it  requires  5  cwt.,  per  day, 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS.  109 

to  keep  them  in  a  thriving  condition.  This,  in  150 
days,  would  amount  to  37^  tons,  worth,  at  least,  $375, 
and  he  will  soon  find,  if  he  did  not  know  it  before,  that 
his  cattle  will  not  gain  $375  in  value  when  fed  in  this 
way — probably  not  more  than  half  that  amount,  ex- 
cept in  those  years  when  stock  happens  to  be  very 
much  higher  in  the  spring  than  the  fall  before. 
Three  years  out  of  four  he  will  make  a  heavy  loss  on 
his  hay.  The  problem  is,  how  to  avoid  this  loss.  If 
he  can  keep  his  cattle  more  cheaply,  and  have  them 
grow  equally  well,  he  will  gain  in  one  direction ;  if  he 
can  keep  them  equally  cheaply,  and  have  them  grow 
better,  he  will  gain  in  another  direction :  if  he  can 
gain  both  these  ends — keep  them  more  cheaply,  and 
have  them  grow  faster — then  he  will  gain  in  both  di- 
rections. These  are  the  points  at  which  the  feeder  of 
stock  should  aim.  He  must  take  the  best  care  of  his 
cattle,  and  give  them  a  variety  of  food.  Let  them  have 
pure  water ;  let  it  be  where  they  can  get  it  without 
much  trouble ;  they  should  drink  little  and  often,  ra- 
ther than  drink  enough  at  once  for  twenty-four  hours. 
Let  them  have  salt  always  within  their  reach.  Let 
them  have  warm  stalls,  and  a  sunny  yard,  well  litter- 
ed, and  thoroughly  protected  from  all  cold  winds.  If, 
with  these  conditions,  he  will  give  them  a  little  good 
hay,  daily,  they  will  be  so  hardy,  and  so  contented, 
that  they  may  be  turned  off  with  cheaper  food  for  the 
principal  part  of  their  living,  such  as  second-rate  hay, 
cut  straw,  with  a  little  corn-meal  thrown  upon  it,  roots, 
corn-stalks,  salt  hay,  swamp  grass,  almost  anything 
that  can  by  possibility  be  eaten.  If  they  are  to  be 
turned  off  with  much   coarse  fodder  and  little  fine 


110  ANIMALS  AND   THEIR   PRODUCTS. 

hay,  they  should,  by  all  means,  have  roots,  as  carrota 
and  turnips,  or,  if  these  cannot  be  furnished,  Indian 
meal.  The  succulent  qualities  of  roots  afPord  a  sort  of 
set-off  for  the  dryness  of  husks,  straw,  and  poor  hay ; 
and  corn-meal  contains  some  10  per  cent,  of  oil,  which 
helps  down  coarse  fodder,  about  as  well  as  butter  does 
dry  bread. 

196.  'No  certain  rules  can  be  given  for  all  cases. 
The  feeder  of  stock  knows  what  fodder  he  has  to  dis- 
pose of,  and  what  sort  of  cattle  he  has  to  consume' it. 
He  must  cater  to  his  cattle  as  best  he  can  out  of  his  re- 
sources. He  must  carefully  note  the  effect  of  his  feed- 
ing from  time  to  time.  If  the  profits  of  agriculture 
are  to  be  increased,  or,  in  other  words,,  if  the  farmer 
is  not  only  to  raise  good  crops^  but  to  get  paid  for  them, 
the  business  of  feeding  must  receive  far  greater  atten- 
tion than  it  yet  has. 

197.  It  has  been  stated  in  another  part  of  this  work, 
that  among  the  proximate  constituents  of  plants  used 
as  food,  are  woody  fibre,  starch,  gum,  sugar,  and  oil, 
called  non-nitrogenous  substances.  These  are  com- 
posed of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  (CHO).  There 
are  also  three  nitrogenous  substances — gluten,  albu- 
men, and  caseine.  These,  in  addition  to  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, and  oxygen,  contain  also  nitrogen  (CHON). 
The  first  mentioned  substance,  woody  fibre,  has  little 
to  do  with  nutrition.  It  passes  the  animal  mostly  un- 
digested. The  office  of  the  next  three,  starch,  gum, 
and  sugar,  is  to  support  respiration.  The  next  sub- 
stance, oil,  goes  to  form  the  fat  of  animals,  and  the 


AKIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  Ill 

last  three,  the  nitrogenous  substances,  furnish  mate- 
rial for  muscles  (lean  meat),  tendons  (cords),  and  car- 
tilage (gristle).  Thus,  these  organic  substances  sup- 
port respiration,  and  furnish  material  for  all  the  soft 
parts'of  the  body.  The  bones  are  formed  from  phos- 
phate of  lime,  an  inorganic  substance  contained  in  all 
the  nutritious  grasses  and  in  the  grains. 

198.  It  has  been  stated  that  starch,  gum,  and  sugar, 
as  parts  of  animal  food,  go  to  support  respiration. 
This  requires  to  be  explained.  When  wood  is  con- 
sumed, the  oxygen  of- the  air  combines  with  the  car- 
bon of  the  wood,  forming  carbonic  acid  (CO'),  and  the 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  of  the  wood  combine  with  each 
other,  forming  water  (HO),  so  that  carbonic  acid  and 
v^SiteTj  vapor  pass  off,  while  the  inorganic  parts  of  the 
wood  fall  to  the  hearth  in  the  form  of  ash.  If  we 
were  to  burn  a  handful  of  corn,  the  same  would  take 
place.  The  organic  part  would  pass  off,  as  carbonic 
acid  and  water ;  and  the  inorganic  part  would  fall 
down,  as  ashes.  But  if,  instead  of  being  burnt,  the 
corn  were  to  be  eaten  by  an  ox  or  other  animal,  let  us 
see  what  would  become  of  it.  It  contains,  among 
other  things,  starch,  gluten,  oil,  and  phosphate  of  lime. 
The  digestible  parts  would  be  first  converted  into 
chyle  and  then  into  blood.  The  blood  would  be  im- 
mediately forced  through  the  lungs.  In  the  lungs  air 
would  come  in  contact  with  it.  The  oxygen  of  the 
air  combines  with  the  carbon  of  the  starch,  and  forms 
carbonic  acid  ;  while  the  other  elements  of  the  starch 
combine  with  each  other,  forming  water ;  and  the 
animal  exhales  carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor,  the 


112  ANIMALS   AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS. 

same  substances  that  would  pass  up  the  chimney,  if 
the  corn  were  burnt  on  a  hearth.  And  as  heat  would 
be  produced  by  the  latter  operation,  and  diffused 
through  the  room,  so  animal  heat  is  produced  and 
diffused  through  the  system  by  the  former.  Starch 
undergoes  the  same  changes  in  the  lungs  of  animals 
as  when  thrown  upon  burning  coals — in  both  cases 
it  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid  (CO''),  and  watery 
vapor  (HO) ;  in  both  cases  these  are  sent  afloat  in  the 
surrounding  air ;  and  in  both  cases  the  same  heating 
effects  are  exhibited. 

199.  The  lungs  may  not  inaptly  be  compared  to  a 
stove  constantly  burning ;  for  as  the  stove  converts 
fuel  into  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  thereby  gener- 
ates heat,  so  the  lungs  convert  starch,  sugar,  or  gum, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  fuel  of  the  animal  sys- 
tem, into  the  same  substances,  and  thereby  generate 
heat  and  diffuse  it  through  the  system. 

200.  This  explains  why  animals  should  be  kept 
warm  in  order  to  grow ;  for  if  they  are  exposed  to 
severe  cold,  it  takes  a  large  portion  of  their  food  to 
k^ep  the  lungs  in  sufficiently  active  operation  to  pre- 
vent their  freezing.  Little  is  left  to  supply  the  natural 
waste  of  the  body,  and  perhaps  none  at  all  to  furnish 
material  for  new  growth.  It  explains  also  why  work- 
ing animals  require  more  food  than  others.  In  conse- 
quence of  exercise  they  breathe  more,  and  a  larger 
proportion  of  their  food  is  exhaled  from  the  lungs.  If 
you  were  to  give  a  young,  thrifty  ox,  weighing  1,000 
lbs.,  live  weight,  25  lbs.  of  good  hay  daily,  and  to  keep 


ANIMALS   AND    THEIR    PRODUCTS.  113 

him  warm  and  quiet,  you  might  expect  him  to  grow- 
rapidly,  because  the  25  lbs.  of  hay  would  furnish  food 
for  his  lungs,  and  leave  more  than  enough  to  supply 
the  natural  waste  of  the  body,  and  this  surplus  would 
go  to  form  new  growth.  If  3'ou  were  to  give  the  same 
feed  to  a  similar  ox,  bu.  were  to  work  him  12  hours  a 
day,  you  could  hardly  expect  him  to  grow  much ;  for, 
being  in  such  constant  exercise,  he  would  breathe  a 
great  deal,  and  the  food  might  no  more  than  supply 
fuel  for  his  lungs,  and  leave  enough  to  make  up  for 
the  natural  waste  of  the  body.  Enough  for  this  latter 
purpose  might  not  be  left,  and  then  he  would  fall  away. 

201.  If  you  were  to  give  the  same  food  to  a  third 
ox  similar  to  the  other  two,  but  were  to  turn  him  out 
into  a^bleak  lot  covered  with  snow,  with  no  shelter 
whatever,  you  might  calculate  for  a  certainty  that  he 
would  lose  weight  rapidly.  The  food,  though  enough 
to  make  him  grow,  if  he  had  been  protected  from  the 
cold,  would  not  even  supply  fuel  for  his  lungs;  His 
lungs  would  of  course  act  powerfully.  This  is  all  that 
would  keep  him  from  freezing.  But  it  would  require 
a  great  deal  of  fuel  to  keep  the  fire  burning  within  him. 
The  food  would  all  be  used  up  for  this  purpose ;  afid 
then  drafts  would  be  made  upon  the  different  parts 
of  his  body.  First  the  fat  would  go  to  the  lungs,  and 
be  breathed  away  in  the  forms  of  carbonic  acid  and 
water.  Then  other  parts,  in  proportion  as  they  con- 
tain carbon,  would  become  fuel  for  the  lungs,  until 
there  would  be  little  but  skin  and  bones  left. 

202.  This  would  be  an  extreme  case  ;  but  something 


114  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

resembling  it  takes  place  as  often  as  cattle  in  our  cold 
winter  weather  are  turned  into  an  open  meadow  and 
fed  from  a  bay-stack.  The  hay,  in  such  a  case,  is  used 
up  as  fuel  for  the  lungs ;  and  this  not  being  sufficient 
in  very  cold  weather,  a  part  of  the  body  of  each  suf- 
fering animal  is  consumed  to  keep  the  remnant  from 
freezing.  Misery  to  the  animal  and  poverty  to  the 
owner  is  the  results 

203.  To  return  to  our  illustration  from  a  handful 
of  corn  given  to  an  animal — we  see  what  becomes  of 
the  starch — it  goes  to  support  respiration — keeps  the 
fire  burning ;  or,  in  other  words,  is  breathed  away  in 
carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor,  supplying  animal 
heat  by  its  transformation.  The  gluten  forms  muscle, 
tendon,  cartilage,  and  other  similar  parts.  The  oil 
lays  fat  over  and  among  the  other  portions  of  the  body. 
And  the  phosphate  of  lime  forms  the  hard,  solid  part 
of  the  bones,  constituting  the  framework  of  the 
whole. 

204.  From  what  has  now  been  said  it  is  manifest 
that  the  farmer,  who  wishes  to  expend  his  crops  in 
tl?e  most  profitable  manner,  must  look  especially  at 
two  things :  1st.  The  object  for  which  he  feeds  any 
particular  animal,  whether  it  be  to  obtain  labor,  as  in 
the  case  of  horses  and  working  oxen  ;  or  fat  meats,  as 
when-  he  fattens  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine;  or  milk, 
as  when  he  feeds  cows  and  suckling  ewes;  or 
growth  only,  as  in  case  of  young  cattle,  store-sheep, 
and  swine.  If  he  would  feed  to  the  best  advantage, 
he  must  have  a  settled  plan  with  regard  to  his  ani- 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS.  115 

mals,  and  must  feed  them  accordingly — some  for  work- 
ing, some  for  fattening,  some  for  milking,  and  others 
for  growing.  These  different  purposes  for  feeding  re- 
quire diiferent  kinds  of  food.  2nd.  He  needs  to  un- 
derstand the  composition  of  his  crops,  in  order  to  know 
on-  which  class  of  animals  to  bestow  particular  crops. 
It  is  not  my  purpose  to  lay  down  fixed  rules.  If 
the  farmer  observe  carefully  the  effect  of  his  feeding, 
he  will  learn  to  feed  well  without  such  rules ;  if  not, 
he  will  never  feed  well,  though  he  have  as  many  rules 
as  there  are  in  an  American  cook-book.  General  prin- 
ciples, however,  may  be  of  use. 

205.  We  will  suppose  that  the  farmer  has  disposed 
of  his  fall  feed,  of  his  pumpkins,  his  apples,  and  other 
perishable  matters,  so  as  to  have  brought  his  stock  up 
to  the  front  of  solid  winter  in  high  order.  This  is  an 
important  step  towards  carrying  them  through  profit- 
ably. We  will  suppose  also  that  he  has  prepared  for 
winter ;  that  he  has  provided  pure  water  in  his  yard, 
a  trough  under  cover  from  which  the  inmates  of  the 
yard  may  lap  salt,  or  let  it  alone,  at  pleasure,  separate 
stalls  for  his  animals  as  they  are  to  be  fed  for  different 
purposes,  and  above  all,  a  plenty  of  litter  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  his  floors  dry  and  warm.  We  will 
suppose  further  that  he  has  good  hay,  second-rate  hay, 
and  very  poor  hay ;  that  he  has  corn  and  oats,  carrots 
and  turnips,  a  few  quarts  of  bone-dust  for  his  milch 
cows,  which  they  will  reject,  if  their  hay  contain  suf- 
ficient phosphate  of  lime,  but  will  eat  with  great  ad- 
vantage if  it  do  not.  We  must  suppose  also  that  if 
he  fuUy  understands  his  business,  he  has  provided  and 


116  ANIMALS  AND  THEIB  PRODUCTS. 

stored  near  his  stables  a  quantity  of  ground  plaster, 
or  dried  peat,  or,  what  is  better,  of  both,  to  be  thrown 
on  the  stable-floors  for  the  double  purpose  of  increas- 
ing the  value  of  the  manure  and  of  preventing  the 
bad  effluvia  from  injuring  his  own  health,  and  lessen- 
ing the  thrift  of  his  cattle. 

206.  Thus  equipped,  he  commences  the  solid  win- 
ter. And  now  what  disposition  shall  he  make  of  his 
crops  ?  According  to  the  best  analyses  I  can  obtain, 
good  meadow  hay  contains  10  or  12  per  cent,  of  wa- 
ter, 4  or  5  of  starch,  not  less  than  10  of  gum  and 
sugar,  7  or  8  of  nitrogenous  substances,  3  or  4  of  oil, 
50  of  woody  fibre,  and  7  or  8  of  inorganic  matter 
(ash).  In  hay  grown  on  richly-manured  land,  a  most 
valuable  ingredient  of  the  inorganic  matter  is  phos- 
phate of  lime,  while  there  is  but  little  of  this  in  hay 
grown  on  old,  worn-out  lands,  that  produce  but  a 
sparse  crop. 

207,  From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  good, 
early-cut,  well-cured,  meadow  hay  is  rich  in  nearly  all 
the  desirable  qualities  for  feeding.  There  are  the 
starch,  gum,  and  sugar,  for  keeping  the  lungs  active, 
to  supply  animal  heat.  There  are  the  nitrogenous 
substances  for  the  muscles,  tendons,  and  cartilages. 
There  is  phosphate  of  lime  for  the  bones  and  for  milk. 
And  there  is  oil  enough  to  give  considerable  fattening 
qualities.  It  is  then  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  cattle. 
If  we  could  procure  it  in  unlimited  quantities,  and  at 
a  small  price,  we  should  hardly  want  anything  else 
for  the  occupants  of  the  barn.     But,  limited  as  it  is, 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS.  117 

horses,  working  oxen,  fattening  cattle,  and  milch 
cows  should  have  about  as  much  as  thej  will  eat. 
The  farmer  who  undertakes  to  winter  more  stock  than 
is  consistent,  giving  the  best  of  hay  very  plentifully  to 
all  these  classes  of  animals,  diminishes  thereby  his 
profits.  A  little  of  such  hay  should  also  be  given 
daily  to  dry  cows  and  stock  cattle.  It  tends  to  make 
them  hardy,  and  by  means  of  it,  they  are  rendered  ca- 
pable of  thriving  with  poorer  fare  for  a  large  part  of 
their  living.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  good  economy 
to  give  a  less  nutritious  quality  of  hay  to  horses  and 
working  oxen.  Hay  for  these  may  be  later-cut  and 
coarser.  The  most  important  requisite  is,  that  it 
should  be  clean,  bright,  and  perfectly  well  cured. 
Horses  especially  should  have  no  hay  put  before  them 
from  which  the  least  smoke  or  dust  arises  when  it  is 
handled,  as  it  often  gives  them  a  disease  of  the  lungs, 
called  the  heaves. 

208.  Second-rate  hay,  such  as  grows  on  poor  land, 
or  may  have  been  washed  by  rains,  or  have  been 
heated  in  the  mow,  is  less  nourishing,  and  should  be 
given  to  dry  cows  and  stock  cattle.  When  fed  to 
them  in  the  manger,  they  will  eat  it  clean  and  thrive 
very  well,  if  furnished  daily  with  a  little  first-rate  hay 
to  keep  them  in  heart;  or  if,  instead  of  this,  they  be 
treated  daily  to  a  quart  or  two  of  Indian  meal,  or  one 
or  two  pecks  of  turnips.  A  great  fault  in  the  expend- 
ing of  second  quality  hay  is  that  of  keeping  cattle  on 
this  alone.  They  should  have  something  more  juicy 
and  nutritious  for  a  part  of  their  living.  Those  who 
have  much  second-rate  hay  should  be  observant  of  its 


118  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

effect,  and  should  intersperse  more  nutritious  food  as 
often  at  least  as  is  necessary  to  keep  their  cattle  in  a 
thrifty  condition.  The  eye  of  an  animal,  his  hair,  his 
motions,  his  general  appearance,  all  will  indicate  to 
the  observant  feeder  whether  he  is  doing  well.  If 
not,  a  change  must  be  made.  There  is  no  profit  in 
keeping  miserable,  pinched-up,  shrivelled  stock ;  and 
certainly,  if  the  owner  have  a  heart  in  him,  there  can 
be  no  pleasure  in  it.  - 

209.  Besides  first  and  second  rate  hay,  almost  every 
farmer  is  so  fortunate,  or  unfortunate,  as  to  have  some 
that  is  very  poor.  He  may  have  cut  it  late  among  the 
bogs  of  his  pasture,  or  in  a  swampy  part  of  his  mow- 
ing that  he  has  not  yet  found  time  to  redeem.  This 
may  be  turned  to  account.  If  he  will  throw  it  into 
his  yard  at  noon  in  very  cold  weather,  his  cattle  will 
eat  a  large  portion  of  it.  It  contains  carbon,  and  will 
at  least  furnish  fuel  for  their  lungs — will  help  to  keep 
them  warm,  if  nothing  more ;  and  will  be  converted 
into  manure. 

210.  A  portion  of  oat  or  wheat  straw,  and  of  rye 
straw  even,  may  be  made  of  some  use  in  the  same  way. 
Cold,  clear,  sunny  days  should  be  selected  as  the  best 
for  getting  rid  of  the  poorest  feed.  It  is  observable 
that  cattle  will  work  it  down  about  ''n  proportion  as 
they  are  kept  in  what  some  farmers  call  "good 
heart,"  by  their  morning  and  evening  meals.  A 
steer,  for  instance,  that  has  a  good  breakfast  and  sup- 
per, will  contrive  to  get  down  dry  straw  for  his 
lunch;    while  one  that  fares  very  hard   night  and 


ANIMALS   AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  119 

morning,  will  not,  and  probably  cannot,  swallow  dry 
straw,  nor  bay  tbat  is  nearly  as  dry. 

211.  According  to  an  analysis  by  Prof.  Norton,  In- 
dian corn  contains  12  per  cent,  of  water,  40  of  starcb, 
6  of  gum  and  sugar,  17  of  nitrogenous  substances,  9 
of  oil,  14  of  woody  fibre,  and  2  of  ash.  The  ash  of 
corn  is  rich  in  phosphate  of  lime.  This  renders  it 
valuable  for  milch  cows.  It  will  be  observed  that 
corn  gives  about  three  times  as  high  a  per  cent,  of  oil 
as  good  hay.  It  would  probably  yield  ten  times 
more  oil  than  the  poorest  quality  of  hay.  This  ren- 
ders it  valuable  for  fattening  purposes.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  oil-cake,  an  article  not  much  used  of  late 
years  in  our  country,  though  used  extensively  in  Eng- 
land, corn  is  the  most  fattening  feed  that  we  have. 
It  is  to  be  given  freely  to  fattening  cattle  and  swine. 
If  given  to  milch  cows,  its  tendency  is  not  so  much 
to  increase  the  quantity  of  milk  as  to  improve  the 
quality. 

212.  A  little  corn-meal  fed  to  milch  cows  daily  in 
connection  with  fine,  early-cut  hay,  or,  what  is  equally 
good,  if  it  can  be  obtained,  with  bright,  well-cured 
rowen,  gives  the  milk  great  richness.  One  quart  of 
such  milk  is  worth  at  least  three  quarts  of  milk  from 
cows  fed  on  mouldy  hay  and  slops.  Whether  corn 
should  be  given  to  horses  is  a  matter  about  which 
opinions  differ.  Some  teamsters  prefer  it  to  anything 
else.  The  oat,  however,  seems  to  be  natural  to  the 
horse.     Ilorses  fed  on  clean  hay  and  oats  seem  to  feel 


120  ANIMALS   AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS. 

more  light  and  nimble ;  and  I  am  inclined  to  the  be  • 
lief  that  they  wear  better  and  will  do  more  service  in 
the  long  run  than  if  fed  on  corn. 

213.  It  is  pretty  generally  agreed  that  if  horses  are 
to  be  fed  on  corn,  it  should  be  old  corn ;  as  new  corn, 
that  which  is  not  thoroughly  ripe  and  perfectly  dry 
before  being  ground,  endangers  the  health  of  this  ani- 
mal. 

214.  Corn  is  excellent  feed  for  sheep.  To  fattening 
sheep  it  should  be  given  freely.  For  store  sheep,  tur- 
nips, cut  into  thin  slices,  are  a  good  substitute  for 
corn,  and  are  more  economical. 

215.  Corn  is  the  great  staple  for  pork-making.  The 
very  best  pork  and  lard  are  made  from  corn.  Many 
farmers  are  of  the  opinion,  that  as  the  prices  of  corn 
and  pork  have  been  for  many  years  past,  the  manufac- 
ture of  coru  into  pork  and  lard  does  not  pay.  Cer- 
tainly it  does  not,  if  the  feeding  be  done  at  random. 
But  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  manure  made 
by  fattening  swine  is  of  very  great  value  to  the 
farmer :  in  many  parts  of  the  country  we  can  hardly 
dispense  with  it.  If  dry  peat,  black  swamp  muck, 
dried  beforehand,  or  rich  scrapings  from  the  roadside, 
be  thrown  into  the  pen  in  such  quantities  that  the 
whole  will  be  kept  only  moderately  moist,  there  is 
hardly  an  end  to  the  manure  that  can  be  made  in  this 
way.  With  ten  growing  and  two  fattening  swine, 
a  cart-load,  richly  worth  one  dollar,  may  be  made 


ANIMALS   AND   THEIR  PRODUCTS.  121 

every  day  in  the  year,  at  an  expense  of  labor  not  ex- 
ceeding fifty  cents  a  load,  including  the  application  of 
it  to  the  field  in  the  spring. 

216.  Still  it  must  be  admitted,  the  pork  and  lard 
will  not  pay  for  the  corn,  unless  it  be  given  to  good 
breeds  of  swine  and  fed  out  in  the  best  manner.  But 
if  good  breeds  be  chosen,  if  the  shotes  be  reared  eco- 
nomically till  within  two  or  three  months  of  "  killing 
time,"  if  the  corn- meal  then  be  *'  poured  into  them" 
without  stint,  I  believe  that  pork  and  lard  making  can 
be  made  a  remunerating  business,  especially  when  we 
take  into  account  the  great  value  of  the  manure. 

217.  It  has  been  thought  by  many  that  corn-meal 
should  be  slightly  sour  before  feeding  it  to  swine.  If 
wet  with  water,  it  ferments.  First,  there  is  the  saccharine 
fermentation ;  the  starch  turns  into  sugar.  Then  there 
is  the  vinous  fermentation  ;  by  this  the  sugar  turns  to 
alcohol.  Then  follows  the  ax:etic  fermentation,  by 
which  the  alcohol  turns  to  vinegar.  Now  it  is  mani- 
fest that  if  we  let  the  meal  pass  through  all  these 
stages  of  fermentation,  there  would  be  a  great  loss,  for 
there  are  few  or  no  fattening  properties  in  vinegar. 
But  many  believe  that  if  the  fermentation  be  artested 
while  between  the  saccharine  and  vinous  stages,  while 
yet  there  is  much  sugar  and  some  alcohol,  the  food 
thus  prepared  is  congenial  to  the  swine,  and  that  a 
given  quantity  will  produce  more  pork  and  lard  than 
if  given  unfermented.  This  looks  reasonable  ;  and  it 
should  be  thoroughly  tried  by  those  who  are  feeding 
corn  to  swine.     For  all  other  animals  cori^  in  its  un- 

6 


122  ANIMALS   AND   THEIR  TRODUCTS. 

fermented  state  is  best.  For  human  beings  it  is  cer- 
tainly better  in  any  of  those  namerous  forms,  in  which 
it  is  found  on  our  tables,  than  when  wrought  into  alco- 
hol I  say  this,  however,  in  view  of  the  higher  end 
of  man.  If  one  of  our  race  were  to  be  fattened  for  a 
cannibal  market,  it  is  possible  that  even  he  might  be 
made  to  assume  a  more  imposing  magnitude,  and  to 
become  perhaps  more  tempting  to  savage  eyes,  by  first 
fermenting  and  then  distilling  his  corn-meal. 

218.  I  have  before  spoken  of  oats,  as  the  most  con- 
genial, and  probably  in  the  long  run  the  most  profit- 
able grain  for  horses.  Professor  Johnstone  gives  their 
composition  as  follows  : — water,  16  per  cent. ;  starch, 
38;  gum  and  sugar,  7;  nitrogenous  substances,  16; 
oil,  6 ;  woody  fibre,  15  ;  ash,  2.  It  will  be  observed 
that  oats  contain  much  oil,  and  a  large  amount  of  the 
nitrogenous,  or  muscle-forming  matter.  From  this  we 
might  infer  that  they  are  good  for  fattening  animals, 
and  also  for  all  kinds  of  working  animals.  Such  I  be- 
lieve to  be  the  facts  in  the  case,  as  decided  by  expe- 
rience. Indeed,  oats  are  good  for  any  kind  of  animal 
on  the  farm ;  and  when  they  bear  a  price  not  exceed- 
ing half  the  price  of  corn,  I  believe  it  is  for  the  far- 
mer's interest  to  prepare  all  his  provender  in  part  from 
this  grain.  The  straw  of  oats,  if  cut  5  or  6  days  be- 
fore the  grain  is  fully  ripe,  is  an  excellent  fodder,  fully 
equal  to  third-rate  hay,  and  better  than  the  poorest 
hay.  If  cut  in  a  straw-cutter,  and  moistened,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  corn-meal,  it  is  an  excellent  food 
for  any  animals  in  the  barn,  with  the  exception  per- 
haps of  fattening  cattle  and  milch  cows,  and  of  sheep. 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS.  123 

Milch  cows  should  have  more  juicy,  succulent  food ; 
and  fattening  animals  should  be  spared  all  labor,  even 
that  of  chewing  tough  food.  They  should  be  treated 
to  oily  food  ;  and  it  should  be  of  kinds  that  are  easily 
digested  ;  and  they  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible. 
The  passage  to  their  stall  should  be  by  an  easy  ascent, 
so  as  to  require  little  exertion  in  going  in  and  out. 
The  keeper  should  never  strike  them,  nor  even  threaten 
a  blow,  nor  in  any  way  alarm  them.  Some  have  sup- 
posed, and  I  think  with  much  reason,  that  they  are 
more  dormant,  more  perfectly  at  ease,  and  will  fatten 
faster,  if  their  stall  is  somewhat  dark.  Darkness  pro- 
motes sleep ;  sleep  favors  digestion ;  and  the  more  per- 
fect their  digestion,  thelarger  proportion  of  their  food 
will  be  laid  over  and  through  their  frames  in  the  form 
of  fat. 

219.  Eye  is  of  about  the  same  weight  as  corn ;  con 
tains  more  sugar  and  gum  than  corn,  but  less  nitroge- 
nous matters ;  and  not  more  than  one-third  as  much  oil. 
Where  growth  only  is  the  object  of  feeding,  as  with 
young  cattle  and  shotes ;  also  where  labor  only  is 
desired,  as  with  the  horse ;  and  where  labor  and  growth 
are  both  sought  in  the  same  animal,  as  with  young 
working  oxen,  rye  may  advantageously  form  a  part  of 
the  feed,  if  the  price  be  not  higher  than  that  of  corn. 
The  composition  of  rye  would  lead  to  the  conclusion, 
that  if  given  to  milch  cows,  it  would  produce  as  much 
milk  as  corn,  and  possibly  more,  but  that  the  milk 
would  be  of  inferior  quality,  and  would  not  make  as 
much  nor  as  good  butter  or  cheese.  Its  fattening  pro- 
perties are  small.     For  the  purpose  of  making  beef, 


424  ANIMALS   AND   THEIR   PRODUCTS. 

pork,  mutton,  tallow  and  lard,  unless  its  price  should 
happen  to  be  very  low,  not  more  than  three-fourths 
that  of  corn,  which  seldom  or  never  happens,  it  can 
not  be  used  advantageously. 

220.  Experiments  have  shown  that  on  deep  loams, 
carrots  may  be  raised  to  great  advantage.  Though  not 
less  than  85  per  cent,  of  their  weight  is  water,  yet  the 
quantity  that  can  be  grown  on  an  acre  is  such,  as  to 
leave  a  very  large  amount  of  solid  food,  after  deduct- 
ing 85  per  cent.  They  are  excellent  for  horses,  if  given 
in  small  quantities,  and  with  discretion,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce on  the  bowels  a  slightly  relaxing  effect.  When 
given  as  food  in  part  to  milch  cows,  the  tendency  is  to 
keep  the  animals  in  a  healthy  state,  and  to  impart  a 
yellowness  and  richness  to  their  milk,  with  none  of 
that  unpleasant  flavor,  that  comes  from  feeding  on  tur- 
nips. They  are  excellent  also  for  any  kind  of  stock 
cattle,  when  fed  upon  too  large  a  proportion  of  coarse 
and  not  very  juicy  hay.  Carrots,  as  well  as  turnips, 
potatoes,  and  other  roots,  should,  if  possible,  be  kept  in 
cellars  that  are  cool.  The  nearer  they  can  be  kept  to 
the  freezing  point,  and  yet  not  freeze,  the  better ;  for 
if  too  warm  they  sprout  and  become  dry  and  pithy, 
which  greatly  diminishes  their  value. 

221.  Turnips  contain  from  85  to  90  per  cent,  of 
water;  7  or  8  of  pectine  (a  substance  similar  to 
Btarch) ;  about  2  of  gum  and  sugar ;  from  1  to  2  of 
nitrogenous  matter;  less  than  1  of  oil;  about  2  of 
woody  fibre ;  and  1  of  ash.  The  turnip  is  less  nutri- 
tious than  the  carrot.     It  cannot  so  advantageously  as 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  125 

the  carrot  be  given  to  milch  cows,  because  it  imparts 
an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  milk.  But  it  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  most  if  not  of  all  other  crops  in  the  great 
amount  that  can  be  grown  on  an  acre,  without  injuring 
the  land,  but  rather  benefiting  it,  for  other  crops, 
particularly  for  the  wheat  crop.  In  countries  that  are 
both  wheat-growing  and  wool-growing,  the  turnip  cul- 
ture has  proved  highly  advantageous.  The  sheep  eat 
the  turnips;  and  the  turnips  and  sheep  prepare  the 
ground  for  wheat.  England  can  this  moment  raise 
turnips  enough  to  feed  millions  of  sheep,  and  yet  raise 
more  wheat,  than  if  no  turnips  were  grown.  Whether 
such  a  state  of  things  will  ever  be  introduced  into  our 
country,  time  must  show.  But  as  many  are  doing  a 
little  at  the  turnip  culture,  it  is  desirable  to  ascertain 
what  is  the  best  use  for  these  roots.  They  seem  to 
possess  very  little  of  the  fattening  properties.  For 
stock  cattle,  if  turned  off  with  poorish  hay,  they  could 
not  fail  to  be  of  great  use,  both  for  the  substantial 
nourishment  they  contain,  and  from  their  influence  in 
keeping  the  animals  in  a  healthy  condition.  But  their 
great  use  is  for  sheep.  Sheep  will  do  well  on  about 
half  the  hay  they  would  otherwise  require,  if  they  can 
have  as  many  turnips  as  they  will  eat.  Our  climate  is 
less  favorable  to  the  turnip  culture  than  the  more  hu- 
mid climate  of  England.  There,  from  25  to  30  tons  of 
turnips  can  be  grown  to  the  acre  with  great  certainly. 
Our  dry  climate  must  ever  render  this  crop  less  certain. 

222.  I  have  not  spoken  of  potatoes,  as  a  food  for 
animals,  because  this  crop  has  become  so  doubtful, 
owing  to  the  blight,  that  if  hereafter  we  can  obtain 


126  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

enough  for  the  table,  it  will  be  about  as  much  ^s  we 
can  now  expect.  Whenever  potatoes  are  used  for 
cattle  or  swine,  there  is  no  doubt  that  their  value  is 
greatly  increased  by  cooking. 

228.  The  same  is  true  also  of  apples.  Eaw  apples, 
in  small  quantities,  are  good  for  nearly  all  animals ; 
but  if  cooked  they  are  far  better.  Indeed,  nearly  all 
kinds  of  food  are  better  for  being  cooked.  That  In- 
dian meal  for  swine  is  worth  far  more  when  cooked, 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  It  is  not  so,  however,  with 
regard  to  all  animals.  Horses  do  better  on  raw  food. 
All  kinds  of  horned  cattle  and  swine  are  more  bene- 
fited by  an  equal  amount  of  apples,  potatoes,  pump- 
kins, and  meal  of  every  kind,  when  cooked,  than  when 
raw. 

224.  With  regard  to  hay,  especially  long,  coarse 
hay,  and  all  kinds  of  straw,  the  value  is  increased  by 
cutting,  more  than  enough  to  compensate  for  the  ex- 
tra labor.  Animals  more  easily  digest  food  that  is 
properly  prepared  for  them.  The  food  is  more  readily 
and  in  a  larger  proportion  converted  into  the  parts 
of  their  bodies. 

225.  With  regard  to  wintering  stock,  it  has  already 
been  laid  down  as  wretched  policy  to  allow  them  to 
become  lean  and  puny  on  the  threshold  of  winter. 
The  cost  of  wintering  is  thereby  increased,  and  the 
profit  is  diminished.  It  is  not  as  bad  policy,  yet  it  is 
not  good,  to  allow  them  to  fall  off  on  the  heels  of 
winter.      Some  farmers  get  their  stock   along  into 


ANIALA.LS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  127 

April  in  good  order,  and  then  allow  them  to  lose 
half  the  benefit  of  a  good  wintering  for  the  want  of  a 
little  more  feed  and  attention.  They  should  persevere 
in  well-doing  a  little  longer,  that  their  cattle  may  com- 
mence the  summer  in  good  plight.  In  this  way  they 
will  make  a  good  summer's  growth  ;  and  many  of  them 
will  turn  for  early  beef,  when  beef  is  almost  always 
higher  than  in  autumn. 

226.  It  is  a  very  great  error  to  suppose  that  young 
cattle  may  be  turned  off  with  the  most  innutritioue 
food,  and  with  little  care  and  no  shelter.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  should  be  warmly  sheltered,  kindly  cared 
for,  and  fed  with  nutritious  food.  The  milk  of  the 
mother  contains  all  that  they  need  in  the  earliest  stage 
of  life.  When  weaned  from  this,  they  should  be  so 
fed  as  to  make  no  unnecessarily  great  change  in  their 
fare.  It  is  bad  policy  to  give  them  a  stint  at  this 
period,  from  which  they  will  never  fully  recover. 

227.  All  animals  are  subject  to  a  constant  waste  of 
the  body.  Every  few  years,  probably  as  often  at  least 
as  once  in  seven  years,  the  entire  body  is  changed. 
The  old  particles  have  been  removed,  and  new  ones 
have  taken  their  place.  This  waste  and  renewal  are 
more  rapid  in  young,  than  in  older  animals.  From 
their  food,  therefore,  must  be  supplied  the  material  not 
only  for  their  growth,  but  for  that  waste  of  the  bodv 
which  is  so  rapid  at  this  age. 

MILK. 

228.  It  is  well  known  that  the  milk  of  some  cows  is 


J128  ANIMALS  AND   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

richj  and  tliat  of  others  poor ;  and  that  the  calves  of 
the  former  will  fatten  rapidl}^,  and  those  of  the  latter 
remain  lean.  The  milk  of  some  is  excellent  for  but- 
ter ;  of  others  for  cheese  ;  and  of  others  for  both  butter 
and  cheese  ;  while  that  of  many  is  of  little  use  for  any 
purpose. 

229.  If  you  were  to  set  in  a  shallow  pan  100  ounces 
(65:  lbs.)  of  milk  of  a  medium  quality,  there  would 
arise  to  the  surface  three  ounces  of  oily  matter  (cream) ; 
if  you  were  then  to  take  off  the  cream,  and  put  into 
the  milk  a  little  rennet,  there  would  be  separated  and 
suspended  near  the  surface  about  4  ounces  of  caseine 
(curd)  ;  if  now  you  remove  the  curd,  and  evaporate 
the  whey  by  a  gentle  heat,  there  will  remain  on  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  about  4  ounces  of  a  peculiar  kind 
of  sugar  (lactic  sugar,  sugar  of  milk) ;  and  if  you  now 
burn  the  cream,  curd  and  sugar,  there  will  remain 
about  half  an  ounce  of  ash.  The  composition  of  this 
milk  then  would  be :  water,  88^  per  cent. ;  cream,  3 
per  cent. ;  curd,  4  per  cent. ;  sugar  of  milk,  4  per  cent. ; 
and  inorganic  matter  (ash),  |  of  1  per  cent. 

230.  Other  samples  of  milk  might  give  a  little  dif- 
ferent proportions.  Such  as  are  remarkably  good 
for  butter  might  possibly  give  as  high  as  5  per  cent, 
of  cream  ;  such  as  are  peculiarly  excellent  for  cheese 
might  give  as  high  as  5  per  cent,  of  curd ;  and  those 
of  the  very  best  qualities  for  both  cheese  and  butter 
might  give  as  high  as  5  per  cent,  of  cream,  6  of  curd, 
and  4  or  5  of  sugar,  leaving  but  86  or  7  per  cent,  for 
water.      As  rich  a  sample  as  this  would  probably 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  129 

give  I  of  one  per  cent,  of  ash,  or  inorganic  matter,  if 
burnt. 

231.  The  ash  of  milk  consists  of  phosphate  of  lime, 
phosphate  of  magnesia  chloride  of  potassium,  chloride 
of  sodium  and  soda.  Of  these  inorganic  or  mineral 
substances,  about  one- half  is  phosphate  of  lime.  Hence 
the  importance  that  cows  should  be  supplied  with  this 
substance,  for  they  can  give  us  nothing  in  their  milk 
which  they  do  not  receive  in  their  food.  Oil-cake, 
corn-meal,  hay  from  well-manured  lands,  and  grass  on 
rich  pastures,  contain  sufiScient  of  it  for  their  purpose; 
while  sour  water-grass,  and  the  grass  on  worn-out 
lands,  is  deficient  in  it.  Cows  kept  on  such  feed,  as 
before  stated,  should  be  supplied  with  phosphate  of 
lime  (bone-dust).  If  it  can  be  procured  in  no  other 
way,  bones  may  be  calcined  (burnt  in  the  fire  till  they 
readily  fall  into  powder),  and  given  ,to  them,  as  they 
are  fed  with  salt. 

232.  It  will  be  noticed  that  another  of  the  inorganic 
substances  in  milk  is  chloride  of  potassium.  Some 
farmers  have  adopted  the  practice  of  mixing  ashes 
with  the  salt  given  to  their  cows.  I  doubt  whether 
this  is  well,  for  it  will  compel  them  to  eat  the  ashes, 
in  order  to  get  the  salt.  It  would  seem  a  wiser  course 
to  place  the  ashes  in  a  separate  trough.  The  instinct 
of  the  animals  would  be  a  safer  guide,  as  to  whether 
they  need  more  chlorine  and  potassium  than  are  con- 
tained in  their  food.  If  they  do,  they  *  would  lap 
ashes,  which  contain  one  of  these  elements,  while  their 
salt  contains  the  other ;  but  if  they  do  not,  then  the 


130  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

eating  of  ashes  by  a  sort  of  compulsion,  with  their 
salt,  might  be  injurious. 

233.  The  reader  will  notice,  also,  that  chloride  of 
sodium  (common  salt)  is  another  of  the  inorganic  sub- 
stances in  milk.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
withholding  of  salt  from  milch  cows  diminishes  the 
value  of  their  milk  many  times  over  what  the  salt  is 
worth.  If  we  resolve  the  mineral  ingredients  of  milk 
into  their  elements,  we  shall  have  phosphoric  acid, 
lime,  magnesium,  potassium,  sodium,  and  chlorine. 
All  of  these  are  contained  in  bone-dust,  ashes,  and 
salt.  Now  if,  instead  of  mixing  ashes  with  salt,  as 
some  farmers  have  done,  or  of  mixing  salt  and  bone- 
dust,  as  others  have  practised,  we  should  put  the 
three  things  in  separate  troughs,  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  instinct  of  the  animals  would  be  an  un- 
erring guide  with  regard  to  them  all.  To  say  the 
least,  the  offer  of  them  could  do  no  harm  in  any  case ; 
in  some  cases  it  might  be  beneficial. 

234.  We  must  remember  that  the  cow  creates  no- 
thing. She  manufactures  milk  out  of  materials  con- 
tained in  her  food.  If  any  one  of  these  materials 
fails,  the  whole  operation  is  thwarted ;  for  those  pro- 
portions which  Divine  skill  has  established  cannot  be 
essentially  varied. 

235.  Milk  is  sometimes  said  to  be  a  solution  of  curd, 
sugar,  and  oil,  together  with  the  above-mentioned 
mineral  substances,  in  water.  This  is  not  strictly  cor- 
rect.    Solutions  are  transparent.     Salt,  for  instance,  is 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PBODUCTS.  131 

white ;  but,  if  dissolved  in  water,  it  does  not  render 
the  water  white,  but  leaves  it  transparent;  whereas 
milk  is  white,  opaque,  not  transparent,  which  shows 
that  the  substances  combined  with  water  to  form  it 
are  not  perfectly  dissolved,  but  that  a  portion  of  them 
at  least  are  only  suspended  in  water.  The  same  ap- 
pears also  from  the  fact  that  some  of  them  separate*by 
standing. 

236.  The  curd  of  milk  exists  in  the  form  of  little 
sacks,  or  bags,  each  enclosing  a  globule  of  oil.  These 
little  sacks  of  oil  are  so  nearly  of  the  same  weight 
with  the  water,  that,  by  the  slightest  agitation,  they 
are  kept  diffused  nearly  equally  throughout.  They 
are,  however,  a  trifle  lighter  than  the  water.  This 
gives  them  a  tendency  to  the  surface ;  and  it  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  the  milk  in  the  upper  portion  of  the 
cow's  udder,  that  which  is  drawn  last,  is  the  richest. 
It  is  so  with  milk  standing  in  a  pail  only  a  short  time 
— the  top  is  richer  than  the  average  of  the  whole. 
This  slight  tendency  of  the  curd-sacks,  which  en- 
close the  oil,  of  which  butter  is  made,  to  rise  to^the 
surface,  is  the  principle  on  which  the  cream  is  sep- 
arated. 

237.  Owing  to  the  upward  tendency  being  so  very- 
Blight,  milk  should  be  set  in  broad,  shallow  pans.  A 
given  quantity,  set  in  such  pans,  will  produce  more 
cream  than  if  set  in  deep  vessels.  We  must  suppose 
that  the  oil  is  lighter  than  the  curd-sack  in  which  it  is 
contained.  Those  sacks  which  contain  most,  rise 
first ;  those  which  contain  less,  rise  more  slowly ;  and 


132  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

some  contain  so  little  that  they  do  not  rise  at  all. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  doubt  that  the  whole  milk  con- 
tains more  oil  than  the  cream*;  but  whether,  in  actual 
practice,  more  of  the  oil  can  be  separated  and  made 
into  butter  by  churning  the  whole  milk,  than  by 
churning  thfe  cream  only,  is  not  so  clearly  decided. 
Theory  would  seem  to  favor  the  affirmative,  but  care- 
ful experiment  only  can  decide. 

238.  It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  the  oil  con- 
tained in  milk  is  of  two  kinds,  which  can  be  separated 
by  pressure :  one,  a  yellowish,  liquid  oil,  called  Oleine; 
the  other,  a  white,  solid  substance,  somewhat  resem- 
bling tallow,  called  Margarine.  The  learner  should 
also  bear  in  mind  that  oil  is  a  non-nitrogenous  sub- 
stance (CHO),  and  that  curd,  or  caserne,  is  one  of  those 
nitrogenom  substances  before  spoken  of,  as  containing 
nitrogen.  Now  it  is  a  general  rule  of  chemical  com- 
pounds, that  those  which  are  composed  of  but  few 
elements  are  more  permanent  in  their  nature ;  and 
that  those  which  are  composed  of  many  are  more  per- 
ishable. It  is  also  a  well-known  fact,  that  compounds 
containing  nitrogen,  when  they  begin  to  be  decom- 
posed, become  exceedingly  offensive.  Accordiogly 
the  oil  of  milk,  if  entirely  separated  from  other  ingre- 
dients, is  very  permanent,  is  not  easily  decomposed, 
and  does  not  readily  become  offensive  to  the  taste  or 
smell ;  while  curd,  containing,  as  it  does,  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, oxygen,  and  nitrogen^  and  a  little  sul2yhur  and 
phosphoriLS — no  less  than  six  elements — is  most  easily 
decomposed;  and  when  decomposed,  it  becomes 
almost:  intolerably  offensive,  and,  acting  like  yeast,  it 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS.  133 

communicates  putrefaction  to  whatever  it  touches. 
These  facts  will  appear  important  when  we  come  to 
the  subject  of  the  next  section. 


BUTTER. 

239.  I  do  not  propose  to  go  into  all  the  mysteries  of 
making  and  preserving  butter,  but  to  give  some  gen- 
eral facts  which  those  who  are  desirous  of  learning 
may  turn  to  account.  It  has  already,  been  stated  that 
cream  is  a  mixture  of  oil,  or  butter  (for,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  little  salt,  it  is  the  same  thing)  and  curd. 
The  butter,  in  small  globules,  is  wrapped  up  in  little 
sacks,  or  bags,  of  curd. 

240.  Now  the  thing  to  be  done,  in  order  to  make 
butter,  is,  to  break  open  these  sacks,  and  let  the  but- 
ter out.  When  this  i^  done,  we  say,  *'The  butter 
comes ;"  and  sure  enough  it  does  come — comes  out 
of  the  sacks.  Those  globules  which  were  before  kept 
apart  by  the  sacks,  come  together,  thousands  of  them, 
to  form  a  particle  large  enough  to  be  seen  by  the  un- 
aided eye.  And  now  does  the  reader  say,  the  more 
violently  the  churning  is  done,  the  sooner  will  the 
sacks  be  broken?  Not  so.  You  cannot  break  them 
by  mechanical  force :  it  is  a  chemical  process.  Put 
them  in  the  right  circumstances,  and  they  will  break 
open  of  themselves.  Pounding  will  not  break  them. 
They  will  slip  away  from  under  the  blows  unbroken, 
just  as  a  foot-ball  will  leave  your  foot  when  you  give 
it  a  hard  kick,  but  will  leave  it  whole.  Pressure  will 
not  break  them.     Nothing  will  break  them  till  you 


134  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

put  them  into  the  right  circumstances^  as  to  temperature 
and  exposure  to  air. 

241.  At  40°  Fahrenheit,  you  might  churn  from  Ja- 
nuary td  March,  or  at  100°,  you  might  churn  from 
June  to  September,  and  no  butter  would  come.  Or  if 
you  were  to  exclude  the  air  entirely  from  the  inside 
of  the  churn,  you  might  roll  that  churn,  with  the 
cream  in  it,  from  Cape  Horn  to  Labrador,  and  the 
butter  would  not  come. 

242.  All  the  processes  of  nature  have  their  condi- 
tions. The  separation  of  butter  from  curd  is  one  of 
these  processes.  The  conditions  must  he  complied  with. 
We  will  suppose  that  the  cream  is  from  cows  that  give 
good  milk.  The  farmer  is  unwise  who  keeps  any 
other.  Some  cows'  milk  will  not  give  much  butter, 
for  there  is  not  much  butter  vs^  it.  We  will  suppose 
also  that  the  milk  has  been  kept  at  a  temperature 
about  medium  between  freezing  and  summer  heat ; 
that  the  cream  has  been  taken  off  while  the  milk  was 
yet  sweet,  and  has  been  kept  in  a  cool  place  till  it  was 
a  little  sour,  or  was  very  near  the  point  of  souring; 
that  it  is  now  put  into  a  clean  churn,  and  brought  up 
to  a  temperature  of  about  60°  Fahrenheit,  gradually 
and  without  much  stirring;  and  that  we  now  begin  to 
lift  the  dasher,  or  turn  thfe  crank,  as  the  case  may  be, 
either  forcing  air  into  the  cream  by  some  patent 
contrivance,  or  at  least  letting  air  have  free  access  to 
its  surface,  and  now  let  us  see  what  happens. 

243.  By  stirring  the  cream  we  change  the  surface 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  135 

often,  and  thus  bring  all  parts  of  it  successively  into 
contact  with  the  air.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  combines 
with  the  curd,  and  renders  those  little  sacks,  into  which 
it  is  formed,  brittle,  so  that  they  crack  open,  and  let 
out  the  enclosed  globules  of  butter.  These  eome  to- 
gether, forming  larger  masses,  until,  if  the  churning 
be  continued  long  enough  U  gather  the  butter^  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  nearly  the  whole  will  be  found  in 
one  mass.  The  curd  is  now  nearly  separated.  It  is 
floating  in  the  buttermilk.  The  sugar  of  milk  is  dif- 
fused through  both  the  buttermilk  and  the  butter, 
giving  a  peculiar  sweetness  to  the  butter,  and  also  to 
the  buttermilk,  if  the  cream  had  not  become  too  sour 
before  churning.  This  is  an  important  consideration ; 
for  it  is  this  sugar  of  milk  that  performs  the  double 
office  of  giving  to  the  butter  a  luscious  flavor,  and  of 
causing  it  to  keep  well. 

244.  Washed  butter  may  have  a  tolerable  flavor  at 
first,  for  it  will  retain  a  part  of  the  sugar  of  milk  in 
spite  of  bad  management.  But  it  will  have  given  up 
to  the  water  too  much  of  its  sugar  of  milk  to  allow  of 
its  keeping  for  any  considerable  time.  Put  down  a 
firkin  of  butter  that  has  been  washed,  and  another 
precisely  like  it  in  every  other  respect,  but  which  has 
seen  no  water,  let  them  be  from  the  same  churning, 
be  put  into  similar  firkins,  and  kept  in  the  same  place, 
and  the  unwashed  will  keep  best  for  an  absolute  cer- 
tainty. No  more  absurd  practice  ever  came  into 
vogue  than  that  of  washing  butter  in  floods  of  water. 
There  is  some  advantage  in  washing  very  rancid  but- 
ter, for  some  of  its  bad  properties  may  be  washed  out 


1S6  ANIMAl.S   AND   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

It  may  be  made  tolerable.  But  if  we  wash  fresb  but- 
ter, we  wash  away  the  part  that  is  essential  to  its 
richest  flavor  and  to  its  preservation.  No  water  should 
be  put  into  the  churn,  and  none  used  in  the  process 
of  working. 

245.  The  butter  should  be  taken  from  the  churn 
with  a  wooden  ladle;  should  be  worked  with  the 
same ;  when  nearly  all  the  buttermilk  is  worke.d  out, 
pure,  fine  salt  should  be  added  ;  it  should  be  salted  to 
the  taste.  More  salt  than  is  requisite  to  gratify  the 
average  taste  for  this  article,  has  no  tendency  to  pre- 
serve butter,  but  rather  the  reverse,  unless  the  salt  is 
absolutely  pure,  which  seldom  happens.  Most  salt 
contains  a  little  lime  and  a  little  magnesia  ;  and  when 
this  is  the  case,  any  more  than  enough  to  salt  to  the 
taste,  not  only  gives  the  butter  a  bitter  flavor,  but  ac- 
tually hastens  its  putrefaction.  It  is  very  important 
that  the  best  of  salt,  as  pure  as  can  be  obtained, 
should  be  used  for  butter. 

246.  I  will  here  lay  down  a  rule  by  which  the  dairy- 
man can  tell  whether  his  salt  is  sufficiently  pure  for  the 
purpose.  To  eight  lbs.  of  salt,  in  a  clean  wooden  ves- 
sel, add  one  pint  of  boiling  water ;  let  it  stand  an  hour ; 
pour  it  upon  a  thick  strainer,  and  let  the  water  pass 
into  another  vessel.  The  lime  and  magnesia,  if  any 
were  present,  have  passed  through  in  the  water,  to- 
gether with  a  part  of  the  salt — possibly  a  quarter  of 
the  whole.  What  remains  on  the  strainer  is  nearly 
pure  salt.  Let  that  which  has  fallen  into  the  vessel 
be  put  into  the  catties'  trough.     There  need   be  no 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  137 

waste  if  all  the  salt  used  in  a  dairy  were  thus  washed. 
Now,  with  washed  salt,  let  a  lump  of  buttel*  be  salted  ; 
and  let  another,  from  the  same  churning,  be  salted 
with  some  of  the  same  salt  unwashed.  K  the  latter 
have  a  bitter  taste,  from  which  the  former  is  free,  you 
may  conclude  that  the  salt  contains  lime,  or  magnesia, 
or  more  probably  both ;  and  that  the  whole  should  be 
washed,  as  above  described,  before  being  used  for  but- 
ter, or  else  its  place  should  be  supplied  by  purer  salt. 

247.  Many  a  pasture  has  been  blamed  for  producing 
bitter  weeds,  when  all  the  bitterness  was  in  the  salt. 
The  pasture  was  well  enough,  but  the  salt  manufac- 
turer could  make  half-purified  salt  cheaper  than  pure. 

248.  We  have  said  that  all  the  buttermilk  must  be 
worked  out.  This  is  true,  but  it  is  liable  to  be  mis- 
understood. What  is  buttermilk  ?  It  is  water,  with 
fine  particles  of  curd,  a  very  little  oil,  and  a  little  milk- 
sugar  in  it.  The  particles  of  curd  give  it  a  whitish 
appearance.  Now,  the  butter  must  be  worked  till  this 
whitish  appearance  has  ceased,  but  not  till  the  last 
drop  of  liquid  has  left  it.  The  best  butter  in  the 
world  is  full  of  fine  particles  of  a  transparent  liquid. 
It  would  not  be  best  to  work  these  out  if  3^ou  could, 
for  the  butter  would  then  become  tough  and  waxy. 
More  butter  is  damaged  by  not  working  it  enough, 
but  much  is  damaged  by  working  it  too  much.  The 
dairy-woman  should  watch  the  complexion  of  what 
flows  from  the  butter  as  she  works  it.  When  this  be- 
comes perfectly  transparent,  limpid,  like  pure  water, 
with  not  the  least  whitish  appearance,  the  operation 


138  ANIMALS  AND   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

« 

should  cease  at  once,  for  whatever  is  taken  out  after 
that  is  a  dahiage  and  not  a  benefit  to  the  butter.  It 
is  not  buttermilk,  it  is  water,  with  a  little  salt  and 
sugar  dissolved  in  it,  and  is  an  essential  part  of  good 
butter. 

249.  I  have  used  firkin-butter  from  Madison  County, 
N.  Y.,  nearly  a  year  old,  which  was  as  fragrant  and  as 
sweet  as  new-made  butter ;  and,  on  examining  it  with 
a  microscope,  I  have  found  it  full  of  exceedingly  fine 
globules  of  a  transparent  liquid.  If  rubbed  with  a 
knife-blade,  these  would  run  together  and  form  drops, 
as  limpid  as  spring-water.  Could  they  have  been 
analyzed,  I  have  no  doubt  they  would  have  been 
found  to  contain  salt,  water,  and  sugar,  but  no  curd. 
Had  they  contained  the  least  curd,  it  would  have 
putrefied,  and  would  have  spread  putridity,  offensive 
to  taste  and  smell,  throughout  the  mass. 

250.  I  have  before  stated  that  the  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances, curd  (caseine),  gluten  (as  the  tough,  stringy 
part  of  wheat-flour),  and  albumen  (as  in  eggs),  are 
quick  to  putrefy,  and  that  they  always  act,  as  yeast, 
to  spread  putrefaction.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  a 
particle  of  curd  in  butter  will  create  and  spread  putre- 
faction all  about  it.  The  sugar  of  milk  contained  in 
these  transparent  globules  of  liquid  is  conservative ; 
the  salt  dissolved  in  them  is  conservative,  if  it  be 
really  pure  salt';  but  the  curd,  if  there  be  any,  is  des- 
tructive. The  true  idea  therefore  of  working  out  all 
the  buttermilk  is,  to  work  out  all  the  curd,  and  there 
to  stop,  and  not  go  on  and  work  out  all  the  life  and 


ANIMALS   AND   THEIK   PKODUCTS.  139 

flavor  and  conservative  principle  of  the  butter,  leav- 
ing it,  as  some  do,  little  else  than  a  mass  of  dry  wax. 

251.  When  butter  is  to  be  preserved  for  future  use, 
it  should  be  put  down  in  wooden  firkins.  Stone  pots, 
unless  glazed  better  than  we  commonly  find  them,  are 
porous.  The  mould  which  gathers  on  the  outside,  works 
its  way  through  to  the  butter.  It  is  not  so  with  wood. 
The  pores  fill  with  water,  so  as  to  become  nearly  im- 
pervious. Besides,  pots  of  sufficient  size  cannot  easily 
be  obtained.  The  larger  the  mass  of  butter,  the  bet- 
ter it  keeps.  Whether  the  firkin  be  large  or  small,  it 
should,  if  possible,  be  filled  at  once.  If  this  cannot 
be  done,  the  top  of  the  old  should  be  taken  off,  and 
the  staves  of  the  firkin  thoroughly  cleansed,  before 
adding  new.  We  all  know  that  the  surface  of  butter, 
when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  firkin,  very  soon 
begins  to, putrefy.  Something  foul  gathers  along  the 
edge,  where  the  air,  butter  and  wood  all  come  in  con- 
tact. A  sort  of  rancidity  commences  there  almost 
at  once.  If  this  is  not  taken  off,  it  will  communicate 
itself  to  the  whole  mass.  Some  cover  the  top  with 
brine,  but  this  only  makes  bad  worse.  The  whole 
should  be  kept  as  dry  as  it  can  be  in  an  ordinary  cellar. 

252.  When  new  butter  is  to  be  added  to  a  tub 
partly  filled,  the  staves,  after  removing  the  surface- 
butter  for  an  inch  at  least,  may  be  cleansed  by  scrap- 
ing the  butter  from  them  and  then  rubbing  them  with 
a  cloth  moistened  in  a  weak  solution  of  saltpetre,  care- 
fully sponging  off  with  a  dry  cloth  any  water  which 
may  have  fallen  on  the  butter.     The  new  should  be 


140  ANIMALS  AND   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

put  on  immediately,  and  the  tub  covered  so  as  to  ex- 
clude the  air  as  much  as  possible ;  and  it  should  be 
opened  only  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  make  addi- 
tions. Let  no  salt  be  put  between  the  layers.  The 
whole  should  be  incorporated  in  one  solid  mass,  as 
impervious  to  the  air  as  possible.  No  brine  should  be 
put  on  the  top  ;  the  tub  should  be  filled  to  the  brim ; 
and  then  it  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  and  cool  place. 
I  know  it  is  troublesome  to  put  down  butter  so  that  it 
will  keep  for  a  c-ertainty,  but  it  can  he  done.  Those 
who  prefer  to  eat  stinking  butter,  or  to  offer  it  in  mar- 
ket, can  avoid  the  trouble.  I  am  only  showing  that 
those  farmers  who  prefer  sweet  butter  can  always  have 
it,  if  they  will, 

253.  May,  June,  and  October  are  the  best  months 
in  our  climate  for  packing  butter,  but  with  great  care 
it  can  be  safely  done  through  the  whole  sumjner.  If 
on  the  last  working  a  very  little  sugar  be  added,  not 
more  than  one  ounce  to  5  pounds  of  butter,  it  will 
keep  good  with  greater  certainty ;  and  for  most  tastes 
the  flavor  will  not  be  injured,  but  for  many  will  be 
improved.  The  sugar  should  be  of  the  purest  kind. 
It  would  not  do  to  trust  to  the  pulverized  sugar  of 
the  stores.  That  might  contain  impurities  which 
would  injure  instead  of  preserving  the  butter.  The 
sugar  should  be  the  best  double-refined  lump-sugar ; 
and  it  should  be  pulverized  very  finely,  and  worked 
evenly  through  the  mass.  With  this  addition  of  sugar, 
butter  may  be  pretty  well  preserved  without  all  the 
care  and  trouble  spoken  of  above. 


ANIMALS   AND   THEIR   PRODUCTS.  141 

254.  For  a  succession  of  3-ears,  I  have  seen  store- 
butter,  of  not  much  more  than  a  medium  quality,  se- 
lected and  put  down  in  June ;  and  yet  in  every  case, 
when  not  put  in  stone  pots,  it  has  turned  out  in  the 
following  winter  such  that  no  gentleman  would  be 
afraid  to  eat  it,  nor  ashamed  to  offer  it  to  his  friends, 
nor  would  be  willing  to  deduct  more  than  one^  cent  a 
pound,  if  he  were  to  carry  it  to  market,  from  the  high- 
est price  of  fresh  butter. 

255.  The  cellar  in  which  these  experiments  have 
been  made  is  spacious,  airy,  cooler  than  most  cellars, 
but  rather  damp.  Its  dampness  may  have  been  the 
reason  of  the  failure  in  every  attempt  to  preserve  but- 
ter in  earthen  pots,  while  every  trial  with  wood  firkins 
has  succeeded  admirably,  the  butter  in  every  trial,  not 
less  than  ten  in  all,  coming  out  seemingly  quite  as 
good  in  the  winter  as  it  went  in  the  preceding  sum- 
mer. I  will  therefore  state,  that,  in  a  dryer  atmo- 
sphere, possibly  stone  pots  may  answer  a  better  pur- 
pose than  I  have  laid  down.  My  own  experience, 
whether  in  preserving  butter  at  home,  or  in  buying 
that  preserved  by  others,  has,  in  every  instance,  been 
against  the  use  of  stone  pots. 

CHEESE. 

256.  It  has  been  stated  that  about  4  per  cent,  of 
milk  is  sugar.  Now  if  milk  be  kept  some  time  in 
a  warm  place,  the  cascine,  or  curd,  acts  upon  the  su- 
gar, and  changes  a  portion  of  it  into  a  peculiar  acid, 
called  kijfic  and. 


142  ANIMALS  AXD   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

257.  It  will  be  recollected  that  soda  is  one  of  the 
substances  mentioned  in  a  former  section  as  contained 
in  milk.  It  is  the  office  of  the  soda  to  hold  the  curd 
in  solution,  a  sort  of  imperfect  solution,  as  before  ex- 
plained. Curd  is  not  dissolved  in  pure  water,  but  if 
a  little  soda  be  added,  the  curd  will  to  some  extent 
dissolve  in  it. 

258.  It  is  so  with  milk ;  it  contains  a  little  soda,  in 
a  free  state,  that  is,  uncombined  with  anj  other  sub* 
stance.  The  lactic  acid,  formed  from  sugar  of  milk 
as  before  explained,  combines  with  the  soda,  and  neu- 
tralizes its  alkaline  power,  upon  which  the  curd  imme- 
diately appears  in  the  form  of  curdled  milk.  This, 
if  pressed,  forms  a  kind  of  cheese. 

259.  The  milk  then  has  in  itself  all  that  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  make  cheese.  This,  however,  would  be  a 
slow,  inconvenient  process,  and  would  not  result  in  the 
production  of  a  good  quality  of  cheese.  The  use  of  some 
other  acid  than  that  naturally  generated  in  the  milk, 
is  therefore  resorted  to.  It  may  be  muriatic,  or  any 
of  the  mineral  acids ;  or  it  may  be  a  vegetable  acid, 
ns  vinegar.  The  object  of  the  acid  is  to  neutralize 
the  soda,  to  strip  it  of  its  alkaline  property,  and  thus 
to  withdraw  it  from  its  wonted  office  of  holding  the 
curd  in  a  kind  of  solution. 

260.  I  have  said  that  almost  any  acid  will  answer 
this  purpose.  A  kind  of  animal  acid,  called  rennet^ 
taken  from  the  stomachs  of  suckling  calves,  is  more 
commonly  used.    While  the  calf  was  living,  the  office 


^  ANIMALS  ANE   THEIR  PRODUCTS.  143 

of  this  acid  was  to  curdle  the  milk  taken  from  the 
cow  and  to  thus  render  it  easier  of  digestion  ;  and  af- 
ter he  is  killed,  it  is  made  to  perform  the  ^ame  office. 
The  stomach  is  preserved  in  a  little  salt  and  dried ; 
and  then,  when  wanted  for  cheese-making,  is  steeped 
in  water  ;  and  this  water  is  used  to  neutralize  the  soda 
in  the .  milk,  in  order  to  separate  the  curd.  If  the 
cream  is  first  taken  from  the  milk,  it  makes  what  is 
called  skim-milk  cheese,  which,  if  well  made,  is  a 
wholesome  article  of  food ;  and  would  be  far  better, 
if  one  were  to  live  upon  cheese  mainlj,  than  new- 
milk  cheese. 


261.  In  some  parts  of  England  richer  cheese  than 
new  or  whole-milk  cheese,  is  manufactured.  This  is 
made  by  adding  the  cream  of  the  night's  milk  to  the 
morning's  milk,  and  is  nearly  twice  as  rich  in  butter 
as  ordinary  new-milk  cheese. 

262.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  cheese  varies,  with 
respect  to  the  butter  it  contains,  from  nearly  twice  the 
natural  quantity  in  the  milk  down  to  almost  none. 

263.  Professor  Johnstone,  in  his  lectures,  gives  the 
following  analyses  of  four  kinds  of  cheese  : 


In  100  lb«. 

Nol. 

No  2. 

No  3. 

No  4. 

Water, 

43.82 

35.81 

38.58 

38.46 

Caseine, 

45.04 

37.96 

25.00 

25.87 

Butter, 

5.98 

21.97 

30.11 

.  31.86 

Ash, 

5.18 

4.25 

6.29 

3.81 

264.  From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  some  kinds 
of  cheese  have  less  than  6  per  cent,  of  butter,  and 


144  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

others  more  than  30  per  cent.  What  will  surprise 
most  readers  is,  that  cheese  should  contain  so  large 
proportions  of  water  as  the  above  table  shows. 

265.  The  ash  of  cheese,  varying,  as  the  foregoing 
analyses  show,  from  less  than  4  to  upwards  of  6  per 
cent.,  is  more  than  half  phosphates.  For  each  cow 
kept  on  a  pasture  through  the  summer,  there  is  carried 
off,  in  veal,  butter  and  cheese,  not  less  than  50  lbs. 
of  phosphate  of  lime  (bone  earth),  on  an  average. 
This  would  be  1000  lbs.  for  20  cows  ;  and  it  shows  very 
clearly  why  old  dairy  pastures  become  so  exhausted 
of  this  substance,  that  they  will  no  longer  produce 
those  nutritious  grasses,  which  are  favorable  to  butter 
and  cheese- making. 

266.  The  temperature  of  milk  at  the  tihie  of  put- 
ting in  the  rennet  is  a  matter  of  much  importance. 
It  should  be  a  little  less  than  100°  Fahrenheit. 

267.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  remove  all  the 
whey  from  the  curd,  or  as  nearly  all  as  possible,  before 
salting ;  and  then  afterwards  to  press  the  cheese  thor- 
oughly. The  pressure  should  be  more  moderate  at 
first,  and  then  after  most  of  the  whey  that  remained 
after  salting  has  had  time  to  run  out,  the  pressure 
should  be  increased. 

268.  The  cheese  should  remain  in  the  press  at  least 
two  days. 

269.  The  use  of  bad  salt  should  be  avoided  with 


ANIMALS   AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.  146 

the  same  care  as  in  the  manufacture  of  butter.  That 
bitter  salt,  which  so  often  finds  its  way  into  market, 
containing  lime  and  magnesia,  is  a  great  enemy  to 
success  in  the  dairy  business. 


CHAPTEE    V. 
MANURES. 


RELATIONS     OF     SOILS    TO    MANURE. 

270.  Some  soils  are  so  rich  in  all  the  elements  of 
fertility,  that  they  have  not  yet  required  manuring. 

271.  A  few  others  possess  such  resources  for  a  na- 
tural re-supply  of  the  elements  of  fertility,  as  to  allow 
us  safely  to  predict  that  they  never  will  require  ma- 
nure. 

272.  Setting  aside  the  first — those  which  yet  pro- 
duce well  without  manure — as  enjoying  only  a  tempo- 
rary exemption  from  the  general  rule,  we  may  dis- 
tribute lands,  according  to  their  relations  to  manure, 
into  three  classes :  those  which  will  produce  well 
without  manure,  those  which  will  produce  good  crops 
with  manure,  and  those  which  will  not  give  remune- 
rating crops  either  with  or  without  manure 

273.  To  the  first  class — those  producing  without 
manure — belong :  1st,  lands  lying  on  the  borders  of 


MANURES.  147 

streams,  and  enriched  by  their  overflow;  2d,  lands 
enriched,  as  sometimes,  but  rarely  happens,  by  min- 
eral waters  flowing  upon  them  from  adjacent  lands 
during  the  winter  and  spring;  3d,  lands  in  which  there 
is  much  fertilizing  matter  yet  undecomposed,  but  in 
which  decomposition  is  constantly  going  on,  so  as  to 
keep  pace  with  the  wants  of  crops.  Whoever  is  so  for- 
tunate as  to  own  lands  fertilized  in  either  of  these  ways, 
may,  contrary  to  the  general  rule,  take  from  them 
without  giving  to  them.     There  are  few  sitch  lands, 

274.  To  the  second  class  of  lands — those  producing 
well  loith  manure — belong  at  least  9-lOths  of  all  the 
land  in  the  world.  The  owners  hold  it  on  the  simple 
condition,  that  they  are  to  put  on  as  much  as  they 
take  off.  They  must  furnish  the  raw  material,  out 
of  which  their  crops  are  to  be  manufactured,  or  they 
can  have  no  crops.  They  have  indeed  some  choice, 
in  what  form  the  raw  material  shall  be  supplied,  and 
in  what  crops  it  shall  be  returned.  They  may 
supply  it  in  the  form  of  manure  worth  one  mill  a 
pound,  and  receive  it  back  in  the  form  of  wheat  worth 
two  cents  a  pound ;  or  they  may  supply  it  in  the  con- 
centrated form  of  guano,  worth  two  cents  a  pound, 
and  receive  several  pounds  of  wheat  for  one  of  guano  ; 
but  so  far  as  the  mineral  ingredients  of  soils  and  crops 
are  concerned,  they  are  to  put  on  what  they  take  off, 
and  as  much  of  it.  There  is  no  choice  here.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  favored  soils  before  described, 
this  is  the  immutable  law  of  farming. 

275.  To  the  third  class  of  lands — those  that  by  no 


148 


MANURES. 


treatment  will  give  remunerating  returns — belong 
drifting  sands,  naked  rocks,  and  marshes  so  situated 
as  to  preclude  the  feasibility  of  draining.  That  coming 
ages  may  reclaim  vast  extents,  which  now  appear 
worthless,  is  possible.  The  wants  of  our  race,  how- 
ever great  they  may  become,  will  be  supplied.  Our 
present  business  is  with  that  great  class  of  lands, 
which  are  held  on  the  condition  that  they  will  return 
just  about  in  proportion  as  they  receive. 

RELATIONS  OF  CROPS  TO  MANURE. 

276.  Below  are  analyses  of  three  soils,  by  Professor 
Johnstone — one  fertile  without  manure ;  another  fer- 
tile with  manure  ;  and  a  third  hopelessly  barren. 


TABLE 

IV. 

^                                            SOILS. 

Fertile 
■without 
Manure. 

Fertile 

with 
Manure. 

Barren. 

Organic  Matter, 

9.70 

6.00 

4.00 

Silica,                 .... 

64.80 

.-83.30 

77.80 

Alumina,           .... 

5.70 

5.10 

9.10 

Lime,                .... 

5.90 

1.80 

.40 

Magnesia,          .... 

.85 

.80 

.10 

Oxides  of  Iron, 

6.10 

3.00 

8.10 

Oxide  of  Manganese, 

.10 

.30 

.05 

Potash,              .         .         .         , 

.20 

trace. 

trace. 

Soda,                 .... 

.40 

(( 

i< 

Chlorine,           .... 

.20 

a 

(( 

Sulphuric  Acid, 

.20 

.08 

(( 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

.45 

.18 

« 

Carbonic  Acid, 

4.00 

.45 

ti 

MANURES. 


I^ 


277.  ThQ  ingredients  of  all  these  soils  are  very  well 
as  far  down  as  potash,  except  that  the  third  has  too 
much  oxide  of  iron.  Below  that  point,  important  in- 
gredients are  deficient  in  the  second,  and  almost 
wholly  wanting  in  the  third.  If  now  we  look  at  Pro- 
fessor Johnstone's  analyses  of  crops  below,  we  shall 
see  why  the  second  soil  required  manure,  and  why  the 
third  was  hopelessly  barren. 


TABLE    V. 

CROPS. 


• 

1 

1 
o 

1 

i 

II 

1 

s 

J 

Potash  and  Soda, 

33 

26 

22| 

33 

32L 

45 

51^ 

58 

Lime, 

3 

6 

^ 

5 

H 

^ 

lU 

"  2 

Magnesia, 

12 

10 

n 

101 

16 

61 

3 

6 

Oxide  of  Iron, 

1 

1 

2 

H 

li 

i 

* 

i 

i 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

49 

U 

39 

481 

45 

33 

lU 

i^ 

Sulphuric  Acid, 

I 

101 

trace 

1 

3 

^ 

15 

13} 

Chlorine, 

trace 

i 

<( 

trace 

I 

4 

H 

51 

4« 

SiHca, 

2 

2^ 

27 

i 

i 

_i 

2 

4i 

278.  From  an  inspection  of  these  analyses,  it  is 
reasonable  to  infer  that  the  first  soil  would  produce 
any  of  those  crops  without  manure ;  that  the  second 
would  produce  good  crops,  if  manured  with  some- 
thing containing  potash,  soda,  and  chlorine ;  and  that 
the  third  would  be  likely  to  require  more  manure 
than  the  crop  would  be  worth,  and  might  therefore  be 
abandoned  as  hopeless.     The  first  contains  all  the 


160  MANURES. 

ingredients  contained  in  the  ash  of  plants ;  it  contains 
plenty  of  organic  matter ;  and  it  contains  no  one  of 
the  mineral  substances,  as  oxide  of  iron  or  common 
salt,  in  such  quantities  as  would  be  likely  to  prove 
hurtful.  The  second  has  also  a  large  supply  of  or- 
ganic matter ;  and  it  has  all  the  mineral  substances 
required  for  any  crop,  except  potash,  soda,  and  chlo- 
rine. This  also  is  free  from  any  hurtfal  excess  of  one 
or  two  ingredients.  The  amount  of  oxide  of  iron  in 
it  is  more  favorable  even  than  in  the  first  soil. 
When  we  look  at  the  third,  we  find  it  not  only  desti- 
tute of  those  ingredients  which  are  the  most  expen- 
sive to  furnish,  but  abounding  in  oxides  of  iron  to  an 
injurious  extent. 

279.  The  owner  of  three  such  soils  as  the  foregoing, 
could  he  be  informed  how  they  are  constituted,  would 
naturally  cultivate  crops  of  the  most  valuable  kind  on 
the  first,  as  wheat,  corn,  clover.  With  regard  to  the 
second,  he  would  look  into  the  analyses  of  crops,  and 
select  for  it  those  which  contain  least  of  those  mineral 
matters  in  which  the  soil  is  deficient.  After  selecting 
a  rotation  for  perhaps  three  years,  he  would  next 
inquire  how  the  wanting  ingredients  could  be  most 
readily  supplied.  If  he  were  to  resort  to  barn-yard 
manure,  he  would  supply  to  the  land  a  large  amount 
of  organic  matter  which  this  land  does  not  need,  be- 
cause already  well  supplied  with  it.  He  would  also 
supply  several  mineral  substances  with  which  the  soil 
was  before  abundantly  supplied ;  and  he  would  fur- 
nish in  this  way  but  comparatively  little  of  those 
ingredients  which  are  really  wanted.     The  use  of 


MANURES.  151 

barn-yard  manure  would  be  a  most  expensive  way  of 
keeping  up  the  fertility  of  such  a  soil. 

280.  Potash,  soda,  and  chlorine  are  the  things 
wanted.  Unleached  ashes  contain  5  or  6  per  cent,  of 
potash,  and  about  2  per  cent,  of  soda ;  and  common 
sa,lt  contains  23  parts  of  soda  to  36  of  chlorine. 
Ashes  and  salt  then  contain  all  that  is  wanted.  If 
now  he  sow  on  10  bushels  of  ashes  to  the  acre,  and  2 
bushels  of  common  salt,  his  crops  will  probably  be  as 
much  benefited  as  by  a  heavy  dressing  of  yard  ma^ 
nure.  The  one  would  cost  him  perhaps  three  dollars  ; 
the  other  would  be  worth  thirty. 

281.  But  it  may  be  said  that  the  cheap  dressing  will 
not  answer  the  purpose  always.  Very  true,  it  will 
not;  for  other  mineral  ingredients  will  ere  long  be 
exhausted,  and  the  organic  matter  will  also  be  ex- 
hausted by  continued  cropping,  so  that  by-and-by  a 
dressing  of  manure  will  become  absolutely  necessary. 
But,  if  the  land  in  the  mean  time  will  produce  heavy 
crops  by  means  of  the  ashes  and  salt,  those  crops  will 
beget  manure  in  the  owner's  yard ;  he  can  put  it  on 
this  land ;  and  then  the  land  will  have  manured 
itself,  instead  of  drawing  manure  from  other  parts  of 
the  farm. 

282.  Should  it  ever  become  possible,  through  State 
patronage  or  otherwise,  for  fiirmers  to  obtain  reliable 
analyses  of  their  soils,  farming  would  become  some- 
what an  exact  science.  The  farmer  would  know  what 
crop  to  put  on  each  field,  and  with  what  manure  to 


152  MANURES. 

prepare  tlie  land.  It  would  often  happen  that  one 
dollar's  worth  of  just  what  the  land  required  for  a 
particular  crop,  would  benefit  that  crop  as  much  as 
ten  dollars  worth  of  manure  thrown  on  at  random. 
And  although  special  manures,  containing  just  what  a 
particular  crop  might  require,  and  no  more,  would  not  - 
permanently  enrich  the  soil ;  yet,  by  producing  good 
crops  for  the  time,  these  crops  would  produce  manure, 
and  so  furnish  the  means  of  enriching  the  land  perma- 
nently. 

IMPORTANCE  OP  MANURES. 

283.  Good  farming  always  tends  to  better ;  and  on 
no  point  is  this  more  strikingly  true,  than  in  the  care 
and  application  of  manures.  A  load  of  manure  well 
applied,  not  only  produces  a  greater  crop  this  year, 
but  that  extra  crop  produces  more  manure  next  year, 
and  that  extra  manure  produces  a  greater  crop  the 
year  after,  and  so  on  indefinitely. 

284.  When  speaking  of  lands,  in  another  section,  I 
ghall  have  occasion  to  touch  upon  several  kinds  of 
manure,  as  better  adapted  than  others  to  particular 
descriptions  of  land.  If  there  should  be  some  repeti- 
tion, I  should  regret  it  the  less  from  the  fact  that  the 
subject  of  manures  is  the  most  important  to  which  the 
farmer's  attention  can  be  drawn.  If  he  manage  this 
part  of  his  concerns  well,  a  foundation  is  laid  for  suc- 
cess throughout ;  if  he  fail  here,  he  will  fail  through- 
out. 


MANURES.  153 

ANIMAL,  VEGETABLE,  MINERAL,  AND  MIXED 
MANURES. 

285.  It  has  been  common  to  speak  of  manures  as 
animal^  vegetable^  and  mineral.  A  few,  as  hair,  horns, 
hoofs,  leather  clippings,  sweepings  from  the  woollen 
factory,  &c.,  are  almost  wholly  of  animal  origin. 
Others,  as  decayed  straw,  vegetable  mould  from  the 
woods,  peat,  swamp  muck,  &c.,  are  almost  wholly  of 
vegetable  origin.  And  others  still,  as  plaster,  ashes, 
common  salt,  saltpetre,  lime,  soda,  &c.,  are  purely  of 
mineral  origin ;  while  a  few,  including  barn-yard  ma- 
nures, are  of  a  mixed  character,  partaking  of  an  ani- 
mal, vegetable,  and  mineral  origin. 

MANURES,  STIMULANTS,  AND  AMENDERS. 

286.  Substances  used  to  benefit  soils  and  crops, 
have  also  been  distinguished  into  manures^  stimulants^ 
and  amenders.  Those  of  which  the  principal  object  is 
to  furnish  food  for  plants,  have  been  called  manures  ; 
those  whose  main  object  is  to  bring  into  action  other 
substances  already  in  the  soil,  have  been  called  stimu- 
lants ;  and  those  designed  chiefly  to  change  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  the  soil,  as  when  clay  is  put  upon 
sand,  or  sand  upon  clay,  or  peat  upon  either,  have 
been  denominated  amenders^  their  office  being  not  so 
much  to  afford  nutriment  to  plants,  nor  to  stimulate 
the  soil,  as  to  better  its  physical  state. 

287.  Unfortunately  for  the  latter  distinction,  the 
object  of  an  application  is  seldom  confined  to  one  of 

7* 


154:  MANURES. 

the  foregoing  offices.  For  instance,  we  harrow  stable 
manure  into  a  clay  loam.  It  furnishes  the  plant  with 
eight  or  ten  kinds  of  food  ;  the  salts  contained  in  the 
manure  act  on  the  silicates  in  the  soil  as  stimulants ; 
and  the  manure  itself,  mingling  with  the  heavy  soil, 
renders  it  more  open  and  porous.  Or  if  we  sow  plas- 
ter upon  a  clover  field,  it  performs  at  least  two  offices : 
it  feeds  the  clover  with  sulphuric  acid  and  lime,  and 
it  stimulates  the  soil,  hastening  the  decomposition  of 
organic  matter  contained  in  it. 

ORGANIC  MATTER— HOW  TO  ASCERTAIN  ITS 
AMOUNT  IN  A  SOIL. 

288.  By  recurring  to  Table  lY.,  it  will  be  seen  that 
among  the  ingredients  of  soils,  is  organic  matter. 
This,  so  far  as  of  vegetable  origin,  consists  of  oxygen, 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  with  a  very  little  nitrogen.  So 
much  of  it  as  is  of  animal  origin  contains  the  same  ele- 
ments, with  a  larger  proportion  of  nitrogen,  and  a  very 
little  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  This  organic  matter  is 
essential  to  the  fertility  of  soils.  Its  tendency  is  to  in- 
crease in  lands  that  are  in  grass,  but  to  diminish  in 
those  under  the  plough,  till  it  comes  below  the  point 

essential  tcf  fertilitv. 

»/ 

289.  The  farmer  may  easily  decide,  whether  a  field 
is  deficient  in  organic  matter.  He  may  take  a  hand- 
ful of  soil  from  half  a  dozen  places  ;  mix  all  together ; 
dry  it  as  dry  as  it  can  be  made  in  the  sun ;  put  it  on 
white  paper  and  dry  it  in  an  oven  at  a  temperature 


MANURES.  156 

just  high  enough  to  brown  the  paper  slightly;  then 
weigh  out  and  put  into  an  iron  ladle  100  ounces ;  heat 
it  to  a  red  heat,  and  keep  it  hot  till  all  the  black  color 
has  disappeared  ;  cool  and  weigh.  The  organic  matter 
will  have  burned  away.  If  it  new  weigh  99  ounces, 
his  soil  contains  1  per  cent,  of  organic  matter ;  if  98, 

2  per  cent.,  and  so  on.  A  soil  should  contain  certainly 
as  much  as  2  per  cent. ;  and  it  is  well  if  it  contain  2  or 

3  times  as  much. 


MODES  OF  RESTORING  ORGANIC   MATTER  TO  A 
SOIL. 

290.  When  the  organic  matter  has  become  deficient 
in  a  soil,  there  are  three  ways  of  restoring  it :  1st.  By 
laying  it  down  to  grass,  and  pasturing  it  for  several 
years,  till  it  has  become  thickly  turfed  over.  2nd.  By 
ploughing  in  green  crops.  If  not  entirely  exhausted,  it 
may  be  ploughed  deeply  and  sowed  with  rye,  or  oats 
and  clover  seed.  Clover  roots  are  inclined  to  run  deeply 
in  the  ground.  While  the  clover  is  growing,  it  draws 
for  organic  matter  largely  from  the  air ;  and  at  the 
same  time,  if  there  are  valuable  salts  in  the  subsoil,  it 
brings  them  up  to  furnish  the  mineral  part  of  the  crop. 
If,  when  fully  grown,  it  be  ploughed  in,  it  not  only  sup- 
plies the  soil  with  organic  matter  taken  from  the  air, 
but  with  saline  matters  drawn  up  from  the  subsoil. 
If  a  large  part  of  the  clover  be  fed  off  by  cattle,  their 
droppings,  being  returned  to  the  surface,  will  nearly 
repay  the  soil  for  the  clover  eaten ;  and  then,  if  the  re- 
mainder be  ploughed  in  late  in  autumn,  the  effect  is 
nearly  the  same.     3rd.  By  putting  into  the  soil  large 


156  MANURES. 

quantities  of  some  kind  of  bulky  manure ;  as  manure 
from  the  yard,  or  better,  this  composted  with  2  or  3 
times  its  bulk  of  peat  or  swamp  mud.  If  land,  that 
has  been  ploughed  so  long  as  to  have  become  deprived 
of  its  organic  matter,  is  still  to  be  kept  under  the 
plough,  it  must  receive  great  quantities  of  bulky  ma- 
nure. It  will  not  do  in  such  cases  to  rely  upon  any- 
thing else. 


OBJECT  OF  APPLYING  MINERAL  MANURES. 

291.  If  we  look  again  at  Professor  Johnstone's  analy- 
ses of  soils  (Table  IV.),  we  shall  find  among  their  con- 
stituents all  the  bases  mentioned  in  Table  III.,  and 
several  of  the  acids.  These  do  not  exist  in  soils  separ- 
ately, but  in  combination  with  each  other  as  salts. 
For  instance,  phosphoric  acid  and  lime  are  found  as 
phosphate  of  lime ;  carbonic  acid  and  lime,  as  car- 
bonate of  lime  ;  sulphuric  acid  and  lime,  as  sulphate  of 
lime ;  and  so  each  of  the  acids  may  be  combined  with 
other  bases,  forming  various  salts.  Chlorine  and  soda 
are  more  usually  found  in  combination,  as  common 
salt. 

292..  When  we  apply  mineral  manures,  it  is  for  the 
purpose  of  adding  these  salts  to  the  soil.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  a  soil  containing  a  good  supply  of  organic 
matter,  and  otherwise  in  an  apparently  high  condition, 
will  not  produce  a  particular  crop,  because  it  lacks  one 
or  two  mineral  ingredients,  which  that  crop  requires. 
In  the  ashes  of  clover  is  found  a  considerable  quantity 
pf  both  sulphuric  acid  and  lime;  consequently  that 


MANURES.  157 

crop  cannot  be  grown  on  land  destitue  of  these  ingre- 
dients.    But   such  land,  by  the  addition  of  plaster, 

which  is  composed  of  sulphuric  acid  and  lime,  will 

produce  clover  abundantly. 

293.  Some  have  supposed,  that,  if  we  could  ascertain 
precisely  the  wants  of  our  crops,  the  labor  of  apply- 
ing heavy,  bulky  manures  might  be  avoided ;  that  by 
spreading  on  our  fields  a  few  pounds  of  some  mineral, 
we  might  carry  off  as  many  cart-loads  of  produce,  and 
continue  to  do  so,  without  further  trouble.  But  such 
a  course  would  soon  exhaust  the  soil  of  its  organic 
matter.  The  truth  is,  as  confirmed  by  both  science 
and  experience,  that  if  we  would  take  off  great  crops, 
we  must  put  on  great  quantities  of  manure.  The 
ploughing  in  of  green  crops  will  do  something  towards 
keeping  the  land  up ;  and  the  application  of  compara- 
tively light,  but  expensive  fertilizers,  from  abroad, 
may  do  something. 


HOME  RESOURCES  FOR  MANURES. 

294.  But  after  all,  the  farmer's  great  resource  must 
be  at  home.  The  farm  micst  he  made  to  enrich  itself 
mainly.  Every  particle  of  manure,  made  by  the  ex- 
penditure of  crops,  must  be  husbanded  with  the  ut- 
most care.  Many  a  farmer,  who  has  expended  50  tons 
of  hay,  and  considerable  grain  crops,  has  heretofore 
had  but  100  loads  of  manure,  and  that,  too  often,  de- 
prived by  rains  and  evaporation  of  its  best  qualities ; 
whereas  he  ought  to  have  had  four  or  five  times  as 
much,  and  of  a  better  quality.     I  am  aware  that  this 


158  MANURES. 

implies  a  great  deal  of  labor,  but  it  is  the  most  profit* 
able  labor  done  on  a  farm. 


VALUE  OF  MANURES. 

295.  The  farmer's  study  is  not  to  avoid  labor,  but 
to  make  labor  pay  well ;  and  nothing  is  better  estab- 
lished than  that  the  labor  of  saving  manure^  of  increas- 
ing its  quantity^  and  improving  its  quality,  is  the  most 
profitable  that  he  can  perform  or  employ.  I  will  not 
say  that  manure  is  the  farmer's  gold^  but  it  is  that 
which  brings  him  gold.  About  in  proportion  as  the 
barn-cellar,  the  yard,  and  the  pig-pen,  are  filled  with 
manures,  will  the  purse  be  filled  with  the  shining 
metal ;  and,  what  is  more,  about  in  the  same  propor- 
tion will  the  farmer  have  the  exquisite  pleasure  of 
seeing  everything  on  his  farm  SHINE. 

296.  The  subject  of  manures  is  the  golden  subject  of 
agriculture.  If  I  have  wfitten  obscurely  before,  here 
I  wish  to  write  plainly.  Let  me  talk,  on  this  subject, 
not  about  the  farmer,  but  to  him.  For  the  sake  of 
being  short  and  to  the  point,  let  me  say  /and  you^  in- 
stead of  the  more  roundabout  way  of  saying  the  writer 
andjAe  reader, 

29T.  For  every  load  of  manure,  made  by  a  sleepy, 
listless  mode  of  farming,  you  must  m-ahe  five  loads.  Set 
this  down  to  begin  with.  Let  the  quality  be  improved. 
How  are  these  things  to  be  done  ? 


MANURES.  169 


BARN- YARD    MANURE. 


298.  First  of  all,  put  your  barn-yard  in  the  right 
shape,  if  it  is  not  so  already.  Let  it  be  slightly  dish- 
ing in  the  centre,  and  a  little  elevated  at  the  edges. 
Turn  from  it  the  eaves  of  the  barn.  Let  no  water  run 
into  it  except  what  comes  directly  fronl  the  clouds, 
and,  if  possible,  let  one-fourth  of  this  be  cut  off  by 
sheds  with  their  roofs  turning  outward.  Above  all, 
let  no  water  run  out  of  the  yard,  not  even  downward 
into  the  earth.  How  this  last  can  be  prevented  you 
will  soon  learn.  It  is  not  by  puddling  nor  by  flagging 
the  ground.  It  is  of  little  consequence  how  tight  or 
how  porous  the  yard  is,  if  you  are  only  a  wise  man  ; 
for  in  that  case,  you  will  turn  either  fault  to  a  good 
account.  If  the  bottom  of  your  yard  be  an  impervious 
hard-pan,  it  will  hold  your  manure  of  course ;  if  it  be  an 
open,  porous  soil,  what  you  would  call  leachy^  you  must 
lower  it  several  inches  every  time  you  clear  it  of  ma- 
nure. In  this  way  you  will  carry  to  your  lands  the 
salts  of  the  manure,  which  would  otherwise,  in  process 
of  time,  be  washed  into  the  earth,  in  spite  of  my  ad- 
vice to  let  nothing  run  from  the  yard,  even  down- 
wards. 

299.  How  are  you  to  prevent  water  from  running 
from  the  yard  downwards,  if  the  ground  be  porous, 
or  from  running  over,  in  great  rains,  if  it  be  imper- 
vious ?  Answer :  You  are  to  have  great  quantities  of 
absorbent  vegetable  matters  always  in  readiness  on 
your  farm.  It  may  be  of  half-rotted  straw,  though, 
if  you  are  a  thriving  farmer,  your  stock  will  be  likely 

4 


160  MANURES.       - 

to  have  eaten  a  good  part  of  that,  and  rhade  manure 
of  the  rest.  More  probably  it  will  be  peat  or  swamp 
mud,  thrown  up  where  you  reclaimed  swamp  last 
year  or  the  year  before,  now  cured  of  its  sourness  by 
sun  and  rains,  and  ready  for  Tjse.  It  may  be  peat 
which  you  have  bought  of  your  neighbor  at  12^  cents 
a  load,  because  none  such  is  found  on  your  own  farm ; 
or  it  may  be  loam  of  a  good  quality,  which  you  turned 
up  two  years  ago  for  this  very  purpose ;  or  road- 
scrapings,  which  your  men  threw  up  in  heaps  at  odd 
spells  last  summer  ;  or  vegetable  mould,  gathered  into 
piles  along  the  border  of  the  woods.  Whatever  it  is, 
we  will  call  it  a  vegetable  absorbent  It  is  not  UUe7\  Its 
object  is  not  to  keep  cattle  warm  in  winter,  but  to  ab- 
sorb their  urine,  which  is  worth  as  much  as  the  solid 
excrements,  or  a  little  more,  and  to  keep  it  from 
running  to  loss.  All  the  substances  just  mentioned 
shall  be  called  vegetable  absorbents^  in  the  remaining 
part  of  this  work.  They  are  supposed  to  contain  de- 
caying vegetable  matter,  some  more  and  others  less, 
and  therefore  to  be  valuable  in  themselves  as  fertilizers, 
but  valuable,  especially,  as  absorbents  of  rain-water 
and  urine,  and  fully  adequate,  if  used  abundantly,  to 
prevent  the  salts  of  manure  from  being  washed  away, 
and  its  gases  from  taking  wings. 

300.  Before  telling  you  precisely  what  to  do  with 
these  vegetable  absorbents^  let  me  exhort  you,  as  you 
wish  to  live  and  thrive  by  farming,  to  have  them 
always  at  command,  so  that  whenever  your  teams  are 
not  otherwise  employed,  you  may  draw  them  in  for 
use.    I  wish  also,  l^efore  going  farther,  to  explain  a 


MANURES.  161 

most  valuable*  property  of  these  vegetable  absorbents, 
which  is  not  often  thought  of.  They  are  carbonaceous 
— contain  much  carbon — and  they  are  more  or  less 
clayey.  Now,  carbon  and  clay  are  the  two  things  in 
nature  best  calculated  to  take  in  and  hold  fast  every- 
thing nutritious  to  plants,  whether  gaseous  or  liquid. 
From  the  very  day  when  you  throw  up  a  muck  heap  in 
your  swamp,  or  by  the  way-side,  it  is  gathering  in  for 
you  the  food  of  plants.  Farmers  always  say  the  older 
their  muck  is,  the  better.  There  is  a  very  good  reason. 
It  is  gathering  in.  It  lays  the  falling  rain  and  the  pass- 
ing wind  under  contribution,  and  it  keeps  what  it  gets. 
If  a  chamber-maid  should  empty  her  slops  upon  a  sand- 
heap,  they  would  escape  into  the  winds,  or  into  the 
ground,  or  both.  The  sand-heap  would  become  no 
richer.  It  would  retain  nothing.  But  if  she  should 
empty  them  upon  a  pile  of  carbonaceous  and  clayey 
matter,  such  as  may  be  found  on  almost  every  farm, 
they  would  be  held  fiist.  By  repeating  the  process  a 
few  days,  that  pile  would  become  almost  as  good  as 
guano.  Even  if  nothing  were  put  upon  it,  it  would 
become  better  from  day  to  day,  by  what  it  would  take 
from  the  rains  and  the  air. 

301.  These  vegetable  absorbents^  consisting  mostly  of 
black,  carbonaceous  matter,  mixed  with  fine,  clayey 
particles,  and  acting,  as  they  do,  both  as  absorbents  and 
RETAINERS,  aVe  of  very  great  value.  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  they  are  deficient  in  the  more  active  salts, 
as  compared  with  stable  manure  ;  but  these,  as  will  be 
shown  hereafter,  can  be  chenply  supplied,  and  then 
they  become  almost  equal  to  the  best  of  manures. 


162  MANURES, 

302.  I  will  not  object  to  the  use  of  gu^o,  poudrette, 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  other  costly  manures.  I  honor 
the  men  who  prepare  and  sell  them  honestly.  They 
are  bringing  into  use  a  vast  amount  of  fertilizing  mat- 
ters, which  would  otherwise  be  lost  to  the  world — are 
returning  to  the  country  the  phosphates  and  alkalies 
carried  to  the  city  in  the  shape  of  butter,  cheese, 
meats,  hay,  and  grains ;  and  are  raking  open  and  bring- 
ing to  market  accumulations  of  birds'  dung,  scores 
of  feet  deep  and  thousands  of  years  old.  The  traffic 
is  a  useful  one.  Farmers,  who  have  faithfully  hus- 
banded their  home  resources,  may  find  it  for  their  in- 
terest to  purchase  these  articles.  They,  of  course, 
will  best  judge  of  their  own  matters. 

803.  But  for  inland  farmers,  those  of  but  ordinary 
means,  to  let  their  muck  remain  untouched,  and  to 
leave  the  urine  of  their  cattle  to  run  into  the  ground, 
or  to  the  nearest  brook — things  which,  together,  would 
make  as  good  manure  as  guano,  only  not  quite  as  con- 
densed, and  at  the  same  time  to  buy  foreign  fertilizers 
at  thirty,  forty  or  fifty  dollars  a  ton,  seems  to  me  like 
the  height  of  absurdity.  Their  improvement  should 
hegin  at  home.  But  let  us  see  how  these  vegetable  ab- 
sorbents should  be  used. 

304.  After  removing  all  the  manure  from  the  yard, 
fill  «l'p  the  yard  with  them  six  or  eight  inches  in 
depth.  It  will  require  a  large  amount  of  materials, 
and  much  labor  ;  but  remember  it  is  a  kind  of  labor 
that  'pays.  This  depth  will  be  sufficient  to  absorb  all 
the  liquid  manure  of  the  yard.     It  will   absorb  also 


MANURES.  163 

• 

the  water  of  all  ordinary  rains,  and  liold  it,  till  in  fair 
weather  it  has  time  to  evaporate,  instead  of  running 
off  and  carrying  the  best  of  the  manure  with  it.  The 
benefit  of  its  evaporation  is,  that  when  it  evaporates, 
it  goes  off  into  the  air,  as  pure  water,  or  nearly  so, 
leaving  the  salts  dissolved  in  it  behind ;  whereas,  if 
it  sinks  through  into  the  ground,  it  carries  these  salts 
away  with  it.  It  makes  a  great  difference  with  the 
manure,  whether  the  rain-water  of  a  whole  summer 
has  left  it  by  evaporation^  or  by  leaching.  In  the  latter 
case,  it  is  full  of  active  salts ;  in  the  former,  its  best 
salts,  the  potash  and  soda  especially,  which  are  easily 
dissolved,  have  been  washed  out  of  it. 

305.  Some  practise  ploughing  over  the  contents  of 
the  yard  once  or  twice  a  month  during  the  summer. 
It  is  a  much  better  practice  to  add  to  it  as  often  a  few 
loads  of  new  material,  enough  at  least  to  keep  the 
thickness  good  or  a  little  increasing,  as  the  cows  and 
other  animals  tread  it  down.  Supposing  the  yard,  in- 
cluding the  portions  under  cover,  to  contain  20  square 
rods,  which  is  none  too  large  for  a  yard  on  a  consider- 
able farm,  the  solid  manure,  at  6  inches  in  depth, 
would  give  bQ  large  loads,  of  50  cubic  feet  each ;  and 
every  load  would  be  worth  more  than  the  3  or  4  or 
half  dozen  loads  of  dry,  scaly  stuff,  that  would  have 
accumulated  from  the  mere  excrements  of  the  ani- 
mals, during  the  summer. 

306.  According  to  the  practice  of  some,  this  should 
be  carried  out  in  the  fall.  I  would  by  no  means  ad- 
vise to  such  a  course,  unless  you  mean  to  put  in  as 


164  MANURES. 

mucli  more,  to  lie  in  the  yard  over  winter ;  and  even 
then,  it  would  be  better  to  lay  the  new  on  the  top  of 
the  old.  The  great  thickness  of  the  mass  would  pro- 
tect it  from  bein^  leached  by  winter  storms :  various 
kinds  of  litter  would  have  been  trodden  into  it  during 
the  winter ;  and  early  in  the  spring  it  would  all  be 
ready  for  use,  unless  the  top  might  be  so  strawy  that 
it  would  require  to  be  thrown  into  heaps  a  few  days 
to  undergo  a  partial  fermentation.  Here  would  be, 
according  to  the  number  of  cattle  you  had  kept,  and 
the  amount  of  straw  and  coarse  fodder  you  had  thrown 
out,  from  150  to  200  loads  of  excellent  manure.  It 
would  have  cost  a  great  deal  of  labor  to  get  in  the 
materials ;  and  it  would  be  a  heavy  job  to  get  it  out ; 
but  in  comparison  with  its  real  value,  it  would  be  at 
least 'a  hundred  per  cent,  cheaper  than  any  manure 
you  could  buy. 

870.  There  is  an  important  consideration  with 
regard  to  this  manure,  which  must  not  be  over- 
looked. Its  value  is  not  to  be  measured  by  its 
influence  on  the  first  crop.  In  addition  to  its  imme- 
diate effect,  it  acts  as  a  permanent  o.mender  of  the 
soil.  It  should  not  be  put  upon  peaty  land.  A  few 
bushels  of  ashes  would  there  do  more  good  than  a  ton 
of  it.  But  on  almost  any  other  soil,  whether  sandy, 
clayey,  or  gravelly,  it  essentially  amends  the  soil  for 
long  years  to  come. 

BARN  CELLAR  MANURE. 

808.  Every  barn  should  have  a  cellar  for  vege- 


MANURES.  165 

tables,  and  another  for  manure.  Both  should  be  cool, 
but  not  sufficiently  so  to  freeze.  The  vegetables 
should  be  kept  but  a  little  above  the  freezing  point, 
and  the  manure  at  that  point  where  it  will  undergo 
the  most  gradual  fermentation  possible. 

809.  On  the  bottom  of  the  manure  cellar,  place 
from  one  to  two  feet  of  peat^  if  you  have  it ;  of  swamp 
TYiuck^  if  you  have  no  peat ;  or  of  rich  loam,  if  you 
have*  neither.  I  hardly  need  say  that  the  cellar  should 
be  so  constructed  that  a  team  can  be  driven  through 
it,  to  dump  these  materials ;  and  that  a  cart  can  be 
backed  in  at  either  end,  to  take  out  the  manure.  Have 
also  in  readiness  near  your  stalls  as  much  of  the  same 
material  as  you  can  afford  to  collect  for  a  prospective 
return  better  than  you  get  for  any  other  labor. 

310.  Throw  this  into  the  stalls  from  day  to  day, 
enough  to  absorb  the  liquid  excrements,  and  so  min- 
gle with  the  solid,  as  to  render  the  whole  a  tolerably 
firm  standing  for  the  cattle.  After  one,  two,  or  three 
days,  as  you  find  most  convenient,  open  the  scuttles 
and  shovel  the  whole  into  the  cellar  below.  It  would 
be  well  if  the  stables  were  so  arranged  that  the  ma- 
nure from  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle,  should  be  mixed, 
in  falling.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  manure  do 
not  ferment  too  rapidly.  If  it  give  a  smell  of  ammo- 
nia (hartshorn),  a  few  shovelfuls  of  plaster  should  be 
sprinkled  over  it.  The  temperature  should  be  low- 
ered by  throwing  open  the  cellar  windows  and  doors. 
If  this  do  not  prevent  too  violent  heat,  water  or  snow 
may  be  thrown  on.     The  fermentation  should  be  as 


166  MANURES. 

slow  as  possible ;  and  not  tlie  least  smell  of  ammonia 
should  be  allowed. 

811.  The  manure  of  a  stable,  thus  preserved  and 
gradually  fermented,  will  be  ready  for  use  as  soon  as 
wanted  in  the  spring,  and  will  be  from  2  to  4  times  as 
valuable  as  if  thrown  out  from  windows  to  be  frozen, 
thawed,  and  drenched,  in  the  open  air.  It  is  painful 
to  think  how  much  labor  has  been  lost,  or  at  best  has 
failed  of  an  adequate  reward,  for  the^want  of  more  la- 
bor in  the  right  place — in  the  increase^  preservation^  and 
right  applicatio7i  of  manures. 

812.  This  manure,  if  composted  with  peat  or  swamp 
muck  in  the  cellar,  would  not  be  suitable  for  peaty  or 
swampy  lands.  I  do  not  mean  that  it  would  be  of  no 
use  to  such  lands.  Containing,  as  it  would,  all  the 
salts  and  the  nitrogen  of  the  solid  and  liquid  excre- 
ments of  animals,  it  could  not  fail  to  be  of  use  on  any 
land ;  but  since  a  portion  of  it  was  taken  from  peaty 
or  swampy  lands,  it  would  be  more  effective  if  ap- 
plied to  lands  of  a  different  character.  Soils  are 
amended  by  the  application  of  unlike  rather  than  like 
soils. 

•  813.  In  applying  this  manure,  without  analyzing  it, 
to  a  soil  that  is  not  analyzed,  we  could  not  apply  it  on 
the  principle  of  supplying  precisely  what  is  wanted 
for  the  intended  crop ;  but  we  could  apply  it  with  a 
certainty  that  all  its  ingredients  will  either  go  into  the 
first  crop,  or  remain  in  the  soil  for  future  crops.  The 
peat,  or  swamp  muck,  with  which  we  have  compost- 


MANURES.  167 

ed  it,  is  a  strong  retainer.  It  will  hold  fast  the  gases 
and  the  salts  of  the  animal  part ;  whereas,  if  we  put 
uncomposted  manure  into  a  light  soil,  the  gases  which 
it  generates  are  liable  to  be  blown  away,  and  the  salts 
to  be  washed  away. 

314.  I  will  here  state  that  nitrogen  is  considered  to 
be  among  the  most  important  ingredients  of  animal 
manures.  Some  have  gone  so  far  as  to  lay  it  down, 
that  animal  manures  are  valuable  just  about  in  pro- 
portion to  the  nitrogen  they  contain.  When  manures 
ferment,  the  nitrogen  combines  with  hydrogen,  one 
atom  of  the  former  to  three  of  the  latter  forming  am- 
monia (NH^).  This  immediately  combines  with  car- 
bonic acid  (CO'*),  forming  carbonate  of  ammonia 
(NH',  CO'),  which  is  exceedingly  volatile,  and  passes 
off  into  the  air,  where  it  is  dissolved  in  watery  vapor, 
and  again  returned  to  the  earth  in  falling  rain. 

815.  These  facts  show  the  benefit  of  sprinkling 
plaster  on  stable  floors,  which  should  always  be  done, 
and  on  fermenting  manure  heaps.  The  explanation  is 
thus :  plaster  is  sulphuric  acid  (SO'),  and  lime  (CaO), 
or  sulphate  of  lime  (CaO,  SO').  Now,  when  ammonia 
is  escaping  from  manure  in  the  form  of  a  carbonate, 
if  plaster  is  present,  the  ammonia  and  the  lime  ex- 
change acids  with  each  other,  by  what  is  called  a  dou- 
ble decomposition.  The  lime  takes  the  carbonic  acid 
from  the  ammonia,  becoming  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
gives  its  sulphuric  acid  to  the  ammonia,  making  that 
a  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  last  is  a  fixed,  and  not 
a  volatile  alkali,  and  therefore  remains  in  the  manure 


168  MANURES. 

(if  not  washed  away  by  water,  for  it  is  soluble),  till 
wanted  by  the  growing  plant. 

316.  Animal  manures,  while  in  course  of  prepara- 
tion, should  never  be  drenched  with  water,  if  it  can 
be  avoided,  for  then  the  potash  contained  in  them,  and 
the  soda  and  chlorine  which  exist  in  them  in  the  form 
of  common  salt,  are  dissolved  and  washed  away.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  should  not  be  suffered  to  become 
entirely  dry,  as  they  sometimes  will  by  excessive  fer- 
mentation, but  should  be  kept  moderately  moist.  If 
too  dry,  it  is  difiicult  to  keep  the  ammonia  from  escap- 
ing ;  and  besides  the  loss  of  ammonia,  there  is  another 
injurious  action  which  takes  place.  Farmers  gene- 
rally speak  of  it  as  hurning.  They  say  their  mj^nure 
burns.  There  is  more  truth  in  this  than  would  at 
once  be  supposed.  The  manure  does  burn,  or  an  ac- 
tion similar  to  burning  takes  place.  Let  us  see  how 
this  is.  When  wood  burns  on  the  fire,  its  carbon, 
about  half  of  the  whole,  combines  with  oxygen,  and 
passes  off  into  the  air  as  carbonic  acid.  Its  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  pass  off  in  the  form  of  watery  vapor, 
and  nothing  but  a  little  ash  is  left.  So  when  manure 
is  suffered  to  become  very  dry,  and  to  ferment  excess- 
ively, its  carbon  combines  with  oxygen,  and  passes 
off  as  carbonic  acid  into  the  air ;  the  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen pass  off  as  watery  vapor,  and  there  is  not  much 
left.  It  is  very  nearly  literal  truth,  to  say,  that  ''  the 
manure  heap  has  hurnt  downy  What  remains  is  a  lit- 
tle carbonaceous  matter  and  a  little  ash,  about  the 
same  as  would  have  remained  if  it  had  been  literally 
burnt  in  a  furnace.     The  rest  has  gone  into  the  atmo- 


MANUKES.  169 

sphere,  and  may  benefit  the  vegetation  of  the  globe, 
but  very  little  of  it  may  fall  back  on  the  farm  of  the 
man  who  owned  the  manure.  It  will  not  do  to  esti- 
mate this  hurnt  manure  by  the  fact  of  its  being  black ; 
for,  according  to  that  criterion,  swamp  muck,  just  as 
it  comes  from  the  ground,  would  be  better  than  the 
richest  stable  manure.  The  truth  is,  hurnt  manure, 
however  hlack,  is  worth  but  little — less  than  half  cer- 
tainly of  its  original  value. 

317.  A  famous  instance  of  burning  manure  recently 
came  under  my  observation.  A  gentleman  who  had 
come  from  the  city  "to  farm  it,"  piled  up,  on  the 
south  side  of  his  barn,  an  immense  heap  of  stable  and 
yard  manure,  and  let  it  lie  from  April  till  November 
— burnt  down  what  was  perhaps  fifty  loads  to  proba- 
bly not  more  than  twenty-five.  He  then,  just  before 
winter,  spread  it  on  a  peat  meadow,  the  soil  of  which 
was  just  about  as  black  as  the  manure.  For  that  soil, 
I  suppose,  twenty-five  bushels  of  ashes,  to  be  spread 
the  next  spring,  would  have  been  as  good  as  the 
whole,  if  not  better. 

PIG-PEN  MANURE. 

818.  Mythology  relates  that  one  King  Augeus  had 
stalled  30,000  cattle  for  many  years  without  cleaning 
after  them.  Hercules,  it  is  said,  was  appointed  to  the 
task  of  cleansing  these  "Augean  stables."  The  wily 
hero,  as  the  story  has  come  down  to  us,  turned  a 
river  through  them,  and  made  clean  work  shortly. 
Whether  the  stalls  travelled  with  the  current,  we  are 
8 


170  MANURES. 

not  informed,  but  the  manure  went  down  scream. 
Agriculturally  considered,  this  was  just  about  as 
wise  as  the  management  of  some  modern  pig-pens. 


319.  I  have  often  seen  these  important  structures 
built  with  their  roofs  facing  the  south ;  the  manure 
thrown  out  the  south  side ;  the  eaves  washing  it  in 
rainy  days,  and  the  sun  scorching  it  in  fair  weather ; 
till,  between  washing,  and  fermentation,  and  burning, 
there  was  little  left.  Others  are  so  located,  that  rills, 
if  not  rivers,  run  into  them,  not  enough  perhaps  to 
cleanse  them,  after  the  model  of  the  aforesaid  "  Her- 
culean labor,"  but  enough  to  sweep  away  nearly  all  of 
their  soluble  salts.  Owing  to  bad  management,  pig- 
manure  has  come  into  bad  reputation,  but  it  is  good, 
nevertheless,  if  rightly  managed. 

820.  The  pig-pen  should  be  so  constructed  that  the 
eaves  will  be  turned  away  from  the  manure.  The 
ground  should  be  in  such  shape  that  no  water,  except 
what  falls  directly  from  the  heavens,  can  find  ingress, 
and  none  find  egress  but  by  evaporation.  There 
should  be  an  outside  enclosure,  where  the  animals  can 
be  as  filthy  as  their  swinish  nature  prompts  ;  and  an 
inside  apartment,  where  they  can  be  as  dry  and  warm 
as  they  please.  If  the  first  is  not  allowed  them,  they 
may  not  pay  for  their  keeping  in  summer  ;  if  the  last 
is  not  furnished,  they  certainly  will  not  pay  for  their 
winter's  food.  JYo  animal  can  grow  or  fatten  zvhen  suf- 
fering with  the  cold.  It  takes  all  his  food  to  keep  him 
from  freezing. 


MANURES.  171 

821.  Let  the  outside  enclosure  be  of  considerable 
size,  giving  at  least  one  square  rod  to  the  first  tenant, 
and  half  as  much  more  to  each  additional  occupant. 
It  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  American  farmers  have 
land  enough.  They  can  afford  to  give  their  pigs  a  suf- 
ficient range.  The  ground  should  be  dishing,  the  same 
as  in  the  barn-yard,  and  for  the  same  reason — that  no- 
thing may  run  over  in  wet  weather ;  and  the  materials 
for  the  pigs  to  work  over  should  be  so  abundant  as 
never  to  evaporate  to  dryness  in  the  dryest  times. 

322.  Now,  what  is  to  be  done  that  a  lot  of  swine 
may  produce,  partly  in  the  "  natural  way,"  and  more 
by  the  manufacture  of  raw  materials,  ten  loads  each, 
per  year,  of  excellent  compost  ?  If  the  number  to  be 
kept  be  ten,  this  would  give  a  hundred  loads.  Sup- 
pose this  to  be  the  average  number  for  the  year,  and 
let  us  see  how  the  thing  is  to  be  done.  In  the  first 
place,  put  around  the  outside  of  the  pen,  or  outer 
yard,  seventy-five  loads  of  peat,  swamp  muck,  road- 
scrapings,  top-soil,  or  whatever  you  can  best  procure, 
and  then  proceed  as  follows. 

323.  After  the  pen  has  been  cleared  of  its  last  year's 
manure,  throw  in  plentifully  of  this  to  begin  with. 
Let  it  be  scattered  over  the  whole  enclosure  several 
inches  in  depth.  As  it  becomes  thoroughly  moistened 
with  rains  and  the  droppings  of  the  animals,  throw  in 
more,  and  so  on,  through  the  summer  and  fall,  throw- 
ing in,  more  or  less,  nearly  as  often  as  you  feed  the 
swine,  and  taking  care  that  it  always  be  moist,  but 
seldom  or  never  thoroughly  drenched.     The  quantity 


l72  MANURES. 

will  soon  become  so  large  that  it  will  hold  the  water 
of  any  ordinary  rain,  and  withstand  the  evaporation 
of  any  drouth,  if  not  very  severe.  If  it  inclines  to 
dry  up,  it  is  well  to  throw  over  it  a  few  quarts  of 
plaster.  Plaster  is  very  little  soluble.  Five  hundred 
lbs.  of  water  dissolve  but  one  lb.  of  plaster.  It 
cannot,  therefore,  be  lost  by  putting  it  on  moist 
manure,  as  some  other  salts  might  be.  Indeed,  it 
should  be  sprinkled  over  all  manures  frequently, 
but  especially  if  they  incline,  either  in  consequence 
of  dry  weather,  or  of  too  rapid  fermentation,  to  be- 
come dry. 

824.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  outer  pen  for 
swine  should  be  under  cover.  I  think  not.  Kemem- 
ber  that  rain  does  not  hurt  manure,  unless  it  run 
through  it,  carrying  off  its  soluble  salts.  Every  drop  of 
rain  brings  down  ammonia  and  other  fertilizing  mat- 
ters from  the  air.  The  falling  rain  washes  the  air  of  its 
impurities.  After  a  shower,  we  say,  "  How  sweet  the 
air  is."  It  is  sweet,  because  it  is  clean.  Hence,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  cities  and  large  villages,  and  every- 
where, to  a  limited  extent,  rain  falls,  impregnated  with 
enriching  materials.  If  it  fall  on  a  quantity  of  ma- 
nure, whicb  has  sufficient  depth  to  hold  it,  till  evapo- 
ration takes  place,  it  leaves  these  materials  in  the  ma- 
nure. Hence,  the  more  rain  the  better,  provided  it 
go  off  by  evaporation,  and  not  by  filtration.  The  eva- 
poration should  not  go  on  to  perfect  dryness,  for  then 
the  ammonia,  the  carbonic  acid,  and  other  gases,  are 
Inclined  to  escape,  and  the  manure  is  approaching  that 
state  in  which  it  may  be  said  to  be  "  burnt." 


MANURES.  178 

325.  Always  moist  but  never  leached^  should  be  the 
farmer's  rule  for  his  manures.  The  more  manure  he 
makes,  both  in  his  cow-yard  and  his  pig-pen,  the  more 
easily  can  he  keep  it  within  this  rule.  A  few  inches 
of  manure,  spread  over  the  yard  or  pen,  will  be  dry 
as  powder  one  day  and  thoroughly  leached  the  next ; 
while  a  depth  of  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  inches,  will 
stand  a  long  drouth,  or  hold  the  water  of  a  long  rain. 
Consequently,  it  generally  happens  to  the  farmer  who 
makes  manure  on  a  liberal  scale,  that  his  manure  is  as 
much  better  in  quality  as  it  is  more  in  quantity. 

326.  I  have  said,  always  moist  hut  never  leachedr 
Closely  allied  to  this  is  another  rule.  Who  has  not 
noticed  that  a  pig-pen,  in  which  the  occupants  are  in 
danger  of  drowning,  and  one  in  which  the  manure  is 
so  dry  as  to  be  suffering  a  rapid  fermentation,  always 
smell  horribly  ?  To  say  nothing  of  the  keeper  and 
his  family,  the  pigs  themselves  are  less  healthy  in  such 
an  atmosphere,  and  they  will  thrive  less  on  the  same 
keeping.  To  keep  a  stinkiilg  pig-pen,  is  to  throw 
away  part  of  the  feed  and  part  of  the  manure  at  the 
same  time.  By  giving  corn  to  swine,  shut  up  to  a  pol- 
luted atmosphere,  the  farmer  loses  a  portion  of  his 
last  year's  crop ;  and,  by  letting  his  pig-pen  "  waste 
its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air,"  he  fails  of  a  portion  of 
his  next  year's.  A  valuable  portion,  and  not  a  small 
portion,  of  what  should  produce  crops  next  summer, 
is  going  beyond  his  reach. 

327.  Not  the  least  offensive  odor  should  escape  from  the 
pig-jpen     This  is  the  rule  before  alluded  to  ;  and  it  is 


174  MANURES. 

as  practicable  as  it  is  important.  To  practise  it,  will 
save  something  on  the  last  year's  crop ;  something  for 
the  next  year's ;  something  certainly  in  comfort ;  and, 
it  may  he^  something  in  doctors'  bills.  In  order  to 
practise  it  successfully,  one  needs  only  to  throw  into 
the  pig-pen,  and  all  like  places,  including  the  vault  of 
the  necessary,  plenty  of  peat,  black  mud,  or  top-soil 
even,  and  to  see  that  it  is  always  mT)ist,  but  not 
drenched.  A  little  planter  would  be  a  help,  but  is 
not  necessary.  If  it  is  not  at  hand,  the  other  part  of 
the  prescription  will  suffice.  Plaster,  however,  should 
always  be  on  hand.  This,  and  cured  peat,  or  muck, 
should  never  be  wanting  about  the  farmer's  premises. 

328.  The  same  rule  should  be  observed  with  regard 
to  every  part  of  the  premises.  If  others  suffer  bad 
odors  about  their  farms,  they  may  lose  their  comfort 
and  their  health ;  if  the  farmer  suffers  them,  he  will 
lose  his  wealth  also  ;  for  these  are  the  very  quint- 
essence of  his  manures  ;  and  it  is  a  singular,  but  well- 
known  fact,  that  growing  plants  absorb  with  avidity 
what  is  most  noxious  to  animal  life. 


MANURE  OF  THE  SHEEP-FOLD. 

329.  I  shall  not  speak  of  this  at  large,  because  I 
suppose  it  to  constitute  a  portion  of  the  barn-cellar 
manure.  If  the  apartment  for  sheep  be  so  situated, 
that  it  cannot  conveniently  be  thrown  down  with 
t'^e  manure  of  horses  and  cattle,  then  it  would  be  well 
to  mix  peaty  matter  with  it  through  the  winter ;  and 
care  should  be  taken  that  it  do  not  dry  up  and  become 


MANURES.  175 

hard.  Let  it  be  so  managed  as  to  be  kept  moist  till 
nearly  time  to  use  it.  If  then  composted  with  one 
bushel  of  plaster  to  the  load,  a  peck  of  salt,  and  some 
additional  peat,  making  two  or  more  loads-of  compost 
for  one  of  the  animal  excrements,  it  is  an  excellent 
manure  for  corn.  If  the  land  is  in  good  heart,  or,  in 
case  of  its  not  being  so,  if  6  or  8  loads  of  barn-yard 
manure  be  firsl  harrowed  in,  nine  loads  of  this  com- 
post to  the  acre,  (implying  not  more  than  four  loads 
before  composting)  put  into  the  hill  while  in  a  state  of 
moderate  fermentation,  the  corn  to  be  planted  imme- 
diately upon  it,  will  secure  a  good  crop  of  corn,  from 
60  to  90  bushels,  according  to  the  quality  of  land,  to 
the  acre,  if  the  season  be  not  peculiarly  unfavorable. 
The  peat  used  in  composting  for  this  purpose,  should 
be  rich,  old  peat,  sweetened  by  the  sun,  and  air,  and 
rains,  not  newly  dug,  and  of  course  cold  and  sour.  If 
a  little  lime  had  been  added  to  the  peat,  the  previous 
autumn,  it  would  be  a  valuable  addition ;  only,  care 
should  in  this  case  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  fermenta- 
tion after  composting  to  proceed  too  far.  Let  the  pile 
be  forked  over  promptly,  if  it  'become  hot,  and  more 
peat  added ;  for  it  is  an  important  rule  never  to  al- 
low animal  manures  to  ferment  violently  in  any  cir- 
cumstances, but  more  especially  not  in  the  presence  of 
lime,  as  it  tends  strongly  to  separate  the  ammonia,  and 
will  do  so,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  manure,  if  cau- 
tion is  not  used. 

330.  In  another  place  I  have  spoken  doubtfully,  per- 
haps unfavorably,  of  manuring  in  the  hill.  There 
seems  to  me  to  be  nd  good  reason  why  the  manure 


176  '  MANURES. 

should  all  be  at  one  point,  inasmuch  as  the  corn-roots 
fill  the  whole  ground.  Still,  as  the  summers  in  the 
northern  part  of  our  country  are  short,  it  may  be  well 
to  put  a  portion  of  the  manure,  while  in  a  warm,  fer- 
menting state,  into  the  hill,  in  order  to  give  the  corn  a 
start.  It  is  certainly  better  to  give  it  a  sudden  push 
in  this  way,  than  to  plant  it  so  early  that  it  will  be  long 
in  coming,  and  then  chilled  and  stinted  after  it  has 
come.  If  corn  must  be  small  on  the  first  of  June,  it 
is  better  that  it  should  be  small  from  being  young,  than 
*'  small  of  its  age." 

831.  Sheep  manure  is  excellent  for  the  purpose  of 
thus  stimulating  the  early  growth  of  corn.  Perhaps 
horse  and  hog  manure  are  equally  good,  if  compost- 
ed for  the  purpose,  and  applied  when  in  gentle  fer- 
mentation. These,  however,  must  not  be  relied  upon 
to  hold  out  till  the  last  of  the  season.  Either  the 
land  must  be  in  high  order  from  previous  manuring,  or 
other  manure  must  be  harrowed  in. 


NIGHT-SOIL. 

332.  In  European  countries,  as  also  in  some  of  our 
cities,  this  has  been  wrought  by  various  processes  into 
a  dry,  portable,  inoffensive,  but  very  powerful  manure, 
under  the  name  of  poudrette.  This  is  one  of  the  forms 
in  which  the  fertilizing  agents  of  the  city  are  returned 
to  the  country,  whence  they  came. 

833.  On  the  farm  the  night-soil  may  be  put  to  good 


MANURES.  *  177- 

nse  in  a  less  troublesome  way.  After  being  carried 
off  in  the  spring — or  better,  in  the  latter  part  of  win- 
ter, while  it  is  yet  cool — the  bottom  of  the  vault 
should  be  covered,  at  least  a  foot  in  depth,  with  fine, 
black  peat  or  mud,  previously  prepared  and  dried  for 
the  purpose.  A  little  of  the  same  should  be  thrown 
down  daily  through  the  summer,  and  once  a  week  or 
fortnight  during  the  winter.  If  a  little  plaster  be  oc- 
casionally added,  it  will  be  well,  though  this  is  not 
essential.  The  peat  itself  will  be  sufficiently  deodor- 
tzingj  if  put  down  in  such  quantities  as  to  be  kept 
fairly  moist  and  no  more.  It  will  withhold  all  foul 
odor.  It  is  well  to  have  an  opening  in  the  rear  of  the 
building,  and  a  pile  of  prepared  peat  lying  near,  that 
it  may  be  thrown  down  without  much  trouble,  lest  it 
be  neglected.  Good  farming  requires  daily  attention 
to  many  little  things,  and  unless  a  previous  prepara- 
tion for  them  be  made,  these  little  things,  important 
in  the  aggregate,  are  apt  to  be  lost  sight  of  A  farmer 
might  better  bring  peat  several  miles  for  the  foregoing 
purpose  than  not  to  have  it.  In  an  ordinary  family, 
as  many  as  five  loads  of  a  kind  of  poudrette  can  thus 
be  made,  not  as  concentrated  nor  as  portable  as  the 
article  bought  under  that  name  in  our  cities,  but  suffi- 
ciently so  for  home  use,  and  excellent  for  any  soils 
except  peaty,  and  for  any  crops  except  it  may  be  for 
potatoes  and  other  roots.  For  cabbages,  wheat,  corn, 
or  clover,  it  would  be  first-rate.  If  used  for  corn,  and 
especially  if  used  as  a  top  dressing  for  old  mowing,  it 
would  be  well  to  apply  plaster  pretty  plentifully  with 
it.  I  know  of  nothing  that  will  bring  up  red  and 
white  clover  on  an  old  mowing  like  it. 
8* 


178  MANURES. 

834.  Many  families  make  use  of  chloride  of  lime 
as  a  deodorizer^  or  disinfecting  agent^  about  the  privy. 
They  pay  for  it  ten  or  twelve  cents  a  pound ;  and,  at 
that,  it  is  ineffectual  unless  used  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. Peat  is  cheaper  and  better.  When  peat  can- 
not by  any  means  be  obtained,  black,  vegetable 
mould  from  the  edge  of  the  wood,  or  wherever  great 
quantities  of  leaves  have  drifted  together  and  decayed, 
will  answer.  If  this  cannot  be  obtained,  there  is  a 
sort  of  home-made  chloride  of  lime,  which  can  be  pre 
pared  easily,  and  is  worth  more  for  agricultural  pur 
poses  than  it  costs. 

2>2>b.  To  prepare  it,  take  one  barrel  of  lime  and  one 
bushel  of  salt ;  dissolve  the  salt  in  as  little  water  as 
will  dissolve  the  whole ;  slack  the  lime  with  the 
water,  putting  on  more  water  than  will  dry-slack  it, 
so  much  that  it  will  form  a  very  thick  paste ;  this  will 
not  take  all  the  water ;  put  on  therefore  a  little  of  the 
remainder  daily,  till  the  lime  has  taken  the  whole. 
The  result  will  be  a  sort  of  impure  chloride  of  lime ; 
but  a  very  powerful  deodorizer,  equally  good  for  all 
out-door  purposes  with  the  article  bought  under  that 
name  at  the  apothecaries,  and  costing  not  one  twen- 
tieth part  as  much.  This  should  be  kept  under  a  shed 
or  some  out-building.  It  should  be  kept  moist,  and  it 
may  be  applied  wherever  offensive  odors  are  gene- 
rated, with  the  assurance  that  it  will  be  effective  to 
purify  the  air,  and  will  add  to  the  value  of  the  ma- 
nure much  more  than  it  costs.  It  would  be  well  for 
every  farmer  to  prepare  a  quantity  of  this,  and  have 
it  always  on  hand. 


MANURES.  171^ 

SINK   DRAININGS 

336.  The  washings  of  the  sink  are  of  great  value, 
il  ihey  can  be  so  combined  with  peaty  matter  as  to  re- 
ta  n  all  the  bad  odors  which  they  will  otherwise  emit. 
"W  here  the  nature  of  the  ground  will  admit,  it  is  best 
to  **un  an  under-ground  drain  from  the  sink,  some  dis- 
tance, to  where  composting  can  be  done,  without  ap- 
pearing as  a  nuisance  to  the  premises,  though  a  well- 
managed  compost  heap,  under  the  very  kitchen  win- 
dow, would  be  preferable  to  a  fetid  sink.  At  the 
place  selected  for  the  purpose,  let  an  excavation  be 
made,  large  enough  to  contain  six  or  eight  loads  of 
peat,  swamp  mud,  or  rich  loam,  with  a  view  to  en- 
large it,  by  carrying  off  a  load  or  two  each  year  more 
than  you  put  in.  In  the  spring,  after  the  old  matter 
has  been  carried  off,  fill  this  piling  full  of  peat,  or 
some  other  absorbent,  and  direct  the  washings  of  the 
sink  into  it.  By  the  end  of  a  year  the  whole  will 
have  become  thoroughly  saturated  with  soap,  rinsings 
of  soiled  clothes,  oil,  &c.,  &c. — matters  most  nutritious 
to  plants.  This,  spread  upon  mow-land,  will  be  quite 
equal  to  barn-yard  manure,  and,  so  far  as  the  first 
crop  is  concerned,  better.  After  the  whole,  which 
you  put  in  the  year  before,  is  taken  out,  you  may 
take  a  load  or  two  more,  by  way  of  enlarging  the  ex- 
cavation; and  although  this  last  may  appear  much 
like  common  soil,  you  may  rely  upon  it  to  produce 
good  grass.     It  is  saturated  with  enriching  materials. 

COMPOSTING. 

837.  If  a  farmer  proceed  as  I  have  recommended, 


ISO  MANURES. 

his  composting  will  have  already  been  done.  As  the 
spring  opens,  he  will  find  a  great  quantity  of  manure 
in  his  yard,  under  his  barn,  in  his  pig-pen,  under  the 
necessary  and  at  the  sink-spout,  already  composted 
and  fit  for  use.  The  work  will  have  been  done  at 
times  when  the  business  of  the  farm  was  less  driving 
than  in  April  and  May.  The  manure  is  fit  for  use 
this  year.  He  is  not  to  lie  out  of  the  use  of  it  twelve 
months,  as  when  manure  is  kept  over  for  the  sake  of 
more  perfect  fermentation.  If  he  wishes  some  of  it  to 
be  warmer  than  he  finds  it,  for  the  sake  of  starting 
early  crops ;  or  if  that  in  the  barn-yard  is  to  be  car- 
ried some  distance^  and  he  wishes  to  divest  it  of  a  part 
of  its  water,  to  make  it  lighter,  he  has  but  to  throw  it 
up  into  piles  and  allow  it  to  ferment  a  few  days.  The 
same  operation  will  both  make  it  lighter  to  carry  and 
warm  for  his  seeds. 

338.  I  have  no  doubt  that  this  composting  of  ma- 
nures at  the  place  where  they  are  made  is  the  most 
economical  and  the  best,  as  a  general  rule.  There  are 
three  reasons  for  it :  it  preserves  the  manure  more  per- 
fectly ;  it  permits  the  principal  labor  to  be  done  at  odd 
spells,  and  at  times  when  the  teams  can  be  spared  for 
it ;  and  it  secures  a  gradual  ripening,  and  a  more  per- 
fect preparation  of  the  manure  at  the  very  time  when 
it  is  wanted. 

339.  There  may,  however,  be  exceptions  to  the  rule. 
Suppose  a  piece  of  ground,  designed  for  corn  next 
year,  to  be  a  mile  from  the  barn,  and  that  the  farmer's 
peat  land  lies  in  the  same  direction,     He  is  unwilling 


MANURES.  181 

to  lug  tlie  peat  all  the  way  home  this  fall,  only  to 
carry  it  back  again  next  spring.  Let  him  lay  it,  then, 
near  the  field  where  it  is  to  be  used.  If  it  be  in  a  part 
of  the  country  where  lime  is  known  to  work  well  on 
corn  land  (and  there  are  few  parts  where  it  will  not, 
if  used  as  I  am  going  to  direct),  let  him  mix  10  bush- 
els of  lime  with  as  many  loads  of  peat  for  each  acre 
of  his  field  ;  and  let  the  compost,  thus  far  prepared, 
lie  till  spring.  If  peat  cannot  be  had,  let  him  take 
what  is  most  like  it,  as  swamp  mud,  black  mould 
from  the  edge  of  the  wood,  partially  decayed  leaves, 
mouldering  turf,  road-scrapings,  or  rich  loam,  if  noth- 
ing better  can  be  had.  In  the  mean  time,  let  him  re- 
serve from  the  home  process  of  composting  a  few  loads 
of  rich  heating  manure,  as  that  of  fattening  cattle, 
of  horses  or  sheep.  In  the  spring  let  him  draw  this 
to  the  field,  and  mix  it  load  to  load  with  the  limed 
compost  already  there,  adding  for  each  load  of  the 
loam  manure  one  bushel  of  plaster  and  a  peck  of  salt. 
The  tendency  of  the  lime  would  be  to  hasten  the  fer- 
mentation too  rapidly,  and  thus  drive  off  the  ammo- 
nia ;  but  the  plaster  and  salt  will  hold  it  fast,  and  the 
whole  will  form  a  compost  worth  more  for  a  corn 
crop  than  20  loads  of  the  best  stable  manure,  worth  at 
least  as  much  for  the  permanent  good  of  the  land,  and 
not  less  than  ten  dollars  cheaper  for  every  §cre.  We 
have  here  then  a  process  at  once  for  cheapening  the 
cost  of  production,  and  increasing  the  crop,  and  of  thus 
stretching  the  profits  at  both  ends.  This  is  no  specu- 
lation ;  it  is  the  result  of  actual  experiment.  This 
very  year  I  have  seen,  not  for  the  first  or  second  time, 
corn  grown  in  the  wa/  just  described,  not  in  one  in- 


182  MANURES. 

stance,  but  in  many,  at  a  clear  profit  of  50  dollars  an 
acre,  on  every  outlay,  including  interest  on  value  of 
land ;  while  in  other  cases  it  has  been  raised  in  the 
same  neighborhoods,  and  on  equally  good  lands,  at  a 
cost  little,  if  any,  less  than  the  value  of  the  crop.  The 
difference  is  too  great.  It  shows  that  some,  at  least, 
"  do  not  work  it  right."  As  our  markets  now  are, 
corn  can  he^  and  it  ought  to  be^  raised  at  a  profit  greater 
than  attends  most  branches  of  business. 

340.  In  preparing  compost  for  corn  as  above  de- 
scribed, great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  too 
violent  fermentation  after  the  barn  manure  is  added  to 
the  limed  peat.  If  the  pile  become  very  hot,  it  should 
be  forked  over,  to  check  the  fermentation  and  to  mix 
the  ingredients  more  thoroughly.  If  it  be  not  forked 
over,  care  should  be  taken  to  pulverize  and  mix  it  as 
much  as  possible  when  throwing  on  the  cart,  and  off. 
It  is  better,  however,  to  fork  it  all  over  once  gr  twice  ; 
and  it  should  be  applied  warm,  but  not  hot,  to  the 
soil.  If  the  land  is  warm  and  light,  it  may  be  all  har- 
rowed in ;  if  otherwise,  it  would  be  better  to  harrow 
in  half  of  it,  and  to  put  the  other  half  in  the  hill. 

341.  I  cannot  say  that  growing  corn  in  the  way  just 
detailed  would  be  a  profitable  business  in  every  part 
of  our  country ;  but  I  hnoiv  very  well,  from  the  closest 
observation  and  some  experience,  that  in  the  part  of 
the  country  with  which  I  am  most  conversant,  where 
corn  is  seldom  worth  less  than  80  cents  a  bushel,  it 
can  be  grown  at  a  profit  of  which  no  farmer  ought  to 
complain.     From  long-coatinued  and  most  careful  ob* 


MANURES.  183 

servatioii,  I  have  learned  another  fact — an  important 
one  in  this  connection — that  the  raising  of  great  crops 
bj  these  composted  manures  (cheap  in  everything  ex- 
cept labor)  is  not  a  severely  exhausting  process  to  the 
soil.  Farmers  who  have  done  it  for  years  do  not 
show  worse  lands  than  their  neighbors,  who  have 
growii  less  profitable  crops,  but  better. 

342.  The  remarks  I  have  made  with  regard  to  com- 
posting in  the  field  apply  equally  to  the  manures 
composted  at  home,  as  before  described,  except  that 
peat  need  not  be  added.  That  is  supposed  to  have 
been  mixed  in  sufficient  quantities  beforehand.  Its 
value  would  be  greatly  increased  if,  when  drawn  from 
the  yard  or  cellar,  it  were  composted  with  lime,  plaster, 
and  salt,  in  the  proportions  before  named.  It  should, 
however,  be  with  dead  lime  (oyster-shell,  or  slacked), 
not  quick-lime ;  and  special  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  a  too  rapid  fermentation.  The  lime  should 
not  be  added  long  before  the  whole  is  to  be  incorpo- 
rated with  the  soil ;  as  nothing  can  be  more  erroneous 
than  to  mix  lime  with  animal  manure  and  leave  it 
any  considerable  time  ^yithout  attention ;  nor  would 
it  be  well  to  compost  it  with  manure  to  be  used  as  a 
top-dressing. 

ODDS  AND  ENDS. 

343.  It  is  well  that  there  should  be,  somewhere  in 
the  vicinity  of  a  farm-house,  but  a  little  removed  from 
the  sight,  a  compost  heap^  with  materials  lying  always 
near^  to  enlarge  it.     Of  the  thousand  things  which 


184  MANURES. 

need  to  De  carried  off  from  a  dwelling,  in  order  to  per- 
fect neatness,  let  every  one  that  is  of  any  possible  value 
as  a  fertilizer  be  thrown  in  this  heap,  arid  immediately 
covered  over  with  the  peat,  or  other  substance  used 
for  composting  this  heap. 

344.  Tt  would  be  quite  surprising  how  fast  such  a 
heap  would  accumulate,  and  how  valuable  it  would 
become  in  the  course  of  a  year ;  and  the  very  circum- 
stance of  having  such  a  depot  for  things  to  be  "  got 
rid  of,"  would  contribute  not  a  little  to  the  neatness 
and  health  of  the  premises.  The  peat,  if  that  were 
used,  would  absorb  the  bad  odors  of  whatever  might 
be  imbedded  in  it ;  or  if  that  were  not  quite  suf&cient, 
a  little  plaster  might  occasionally  be  thrown  over, 
which,  together  with  the  peat,  would  eflPectually  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  anything  valuable  to  the  compost, 
or  poisonous  to  the  air. 

845.  When  the  cellar  is  cleansed,  the  decaying  veg- 
etables and  other  matters  should  be  thrown  upon  this 
heap.  The  sweepings  of  the  garret  should  be  dis- 
posed of  in  the  same  way.  If  the  chip-yard  and  the 
wood-house  are  to  be  cleaned,  whatever  is  too  far  de- 
cayed to  be  used  as  fuel,  and  not  sufficiently  so  to  be 
ready  for  the  wet  land,  should  go  to  the  same  omnium 
gatherum  Any  bits  of  spoiled  meat ;  any  brine  that 
is  to  be  carried  out,  ana  is  not  wanted  for  the  aspara- 
gus bed ;  any  dead  animals,  if  not  large  ;  the  hair  and 
bristles  from  slaughtered  swine ;  in  short,  whatever 
animal  or  vegetable  matters  are  no  longer  fit  for  any 
other  use,  should  be  buried  in  this  heap. 


MANURES.  185 

846.  A  single  pound  of  woollen  rags  is  worth  more 
for  the  soil  than  the  paper-maker  would  give  for  two 
pounds  of  clean  linen  shreds.  No  one  would  throw 
away  the  last;  the  first  are  almost  always  thrown 
away.  Their  value,  as  compared  with  barn-yard  ma- 
nure, as  estimated  by  good  judges,  is  as  forty  to  one. 
Old  boots  and  shoes,  could  they  be  reduced  to  pow- 
der, would  be  the  very  b^st  of  fertilizers ;  but  as  they 
cannot,  and  as  they  are  slow  to  be  decomposed,  the 
best  thing  to  do  with  them  is  to  put  them  into  the 
bottom  of  the  holes  in  which  trees  are  to  be  set,  or 
under  an  asparagus  bed,  if  one  is  to  be  prepared ;  or 
what  is  still  better,  they  may  be  dug  in  about  the 
roots  of  grape-vines.  Those  accumulations  of  scraps 
and  parings  of  leather,  which  are  seen  by  the  shops 
of  shoemakers  and  harness-makers,  are  valuable  for 
the  same  purpose,  especially  for  preparing  the  ground 
for  grape-vines.  Under  an  asparagus  bed  or  a  grape- 
vine, they  act  as  a  slow  and  constant  feeder  to  the 
plants,  lasting  many  years. 

847.  No  dead  animal,  as  a  cow  or  a  horse,  should 
ever  be  drawn  ofP  and  left  to  pollute  the  air.  Bury 
it  so  deeply  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  with  loam, 
that  no  effluvia  will  escape,  and  in  a  year  the  whole 
pile  of  earth  thus  thrown  up,  say  10  cart-loads,  will 
be  equal  to  the  best  barn-yard  manure.  If  a  little 
lime  be  put  around  the  animal,  and  a  bushel  or  two 
of  ashes  mixed  with  the  earth  as  thrown  on,  the 
whole  heap  will  become  a  great  nitre-bed.  Every 
particle  of  earth  in  the  whole  mass,  and  it  may  be 
large,  will  become  impregnated  with  nitrate  of  lime 


186  MANURES. 

and  nitrate  of  potash  (saltpetre),  which  will  render 
it  an  excellent  manure. 

348.  Bones,  consisting,  as  before  stated,  of  phos- 
phate of  lime,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  gelatine  (glue), 
possess  great  fertilizing  powers.  In  England,  they  are 
used  very  much  for  the  turnip  crop,  and  are  regarded 
as  an  excellent  means  of  preparing  the  ground  for 
whatever  crop  is  to  succeed.  There  they  are  often 
ground  to  different  degrees  of  fineness.  If  very  fine, 
they  act  powerfully,  but  not  for  a  long  time  ;  if  coarse, 
their  action  is  gradual,  but  very  lasting.  Prof  John- 
stone informs  us  that  as  applied  to  pastures  about  25 
years  ago,  their  action  is  still  most  distinctly  seen ; 
that  in  some  cases  pastures  then  dressed  with  bones, 
now  rent  for  twice  as  much  as  others  side  by  side  and 
equally  good  by  nature,  which  have  had  no  bone- 
dressing. 

349.  Another  mode  in  which  bones  are  managed  in 
England,  and  by  some  in  our  country,  is  to  dissolve 
them  in  sulphuric  acid.  If  put  into  a  large  tub,  and 
moistened  with  about  one-third  their  weight  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  diluted  with  five  or  six  times  as  much 
water,  the  acid  being  sprinkled  on  a  little  at  a  time 
for  several  days,  they  will  settle  down  into  a  salvy 
mass,  which  mayl^e  mixed  with  dried  peat  or  loam, 
and  put  into  the  hill,  or  be  sown  broadcast  and  har- 
rowed in.  This  is  an  excellent  manure  for  turnips, 
Indian  corn,  or  wheat 

350.  Where  few  bones  are  to  be  had,  as  in  ordinary 


# 

MANURES.  187 

families,  a  less  troublesome  way  of  preserving  and  ap- 
plying them  is  to  dissolve  them  in  moistened  ashes. 
Take  some  large  cask,  as  a  sugar  hogshead,  set  it  in  a 
cool  place,  a  little  away  from  any  building,  and  out 
of  the  sun  ;  into  this,  put  bones  enough  to  cover  the 
bottom  over  four  or  five  inches  deep ;  throw  upon  the 
bones  an  equal  quantity  of  strong,  unleached  ashes ; 
wet  the  ashes  with  as  much  water  as  they  will  hold 
without  leaching ;  then,  from  time  to  time,  as  bones 
accrue  in  the  family,  throw  them  into  the  cask  ;  cover 
them  with  ashes,  and  wet  the  ashes  as  before.  If  this 
process  be  commenced  in  May,  and  continued  till 
planting  time  the  next  year,  the  bones  will  then  be 
ready  for  use,  except  that  a  few  near  the  top  will  not 
be  fully  dissolved.  These  may  be  put  into  the  bottom 
of  the  cask  for  the  following  year.  The  rest  will  have 
become  soft,  and  may  be  shovelled  out  with  the  ashes, 
and  with  the  addition  of  a  few  more  ashes,  in  a  dry 
state,  will  crumble  into  a  powder.  They  have  been 
applied,  when  prepared  in  this  way,  to  Indian  corn, 
several  years  in  succession,  and  found  to  produce  an 
excellent  effect.  The  explanation  is  as  follows  :  the 
alkalies  of  the  ashes  withdraw  the  oily  part  of  the 
bones,  combining  with  it  and  forming  soap.  The 
structure  of  the  bones  is  thus  broken  up,  and  they  are 
readily  bruised  to  pieces. 

351.  Some  have  adopted  the  practice  of  burning  the 
bones,  and  then  bruising  into  a  fine  powder.  This  is 
the  least  troublesome  way,  but  it  is  attended  with  the 
disadvantage  that  the  organic  portion,  mostly  gelatine, 
amounting  to  about  one-third  of  the  whole,  is  thus 


188  MANURES. 

lost ;  whereas,  if  thej  are  dissolved  in  ashes,  and  lept 
I'wt,  the  organic  part  all  remains.  The  cask  may  be 
left  open  at  the  top,  and  the  falling  rain  will  generally 
afford  just  about  as  much  water  as  is  wanted,  but  in 
long,  dry  spells  more  should  be  added ;  since,  if  the 
bones  become  dry,  they  not  only  become  hard,  instead 
of  dissolving,  but  they  emit  offensive  odors,  and  thus 
lose  nearly  all  their  organic  part,  nearly  the  same 
effect  being  produced  upon  them  in  this  respect  as  by 
being  burnt. 

352.  Of  foreign  fertilizers,  as  guano,  bones  of  cattle 
from  Central  America,  nitrate  of  soda  (often  called 
soda- saltpetre),  from  South  America,  and  various 
others,.  I  shall  not  speak  in  this  work ;  nor  shall  I 
dwell  on  those  more  portable  manures  beginning  to  be 
prepared  and  sold  in  our  own  country,  as  poudrette, 
prepared  from  the  night-soil  of  cities,  phosphate  and 
superphosphate  of  lime,  made  principally  from  the 
bones  of  animals,  oyster-shell  lime,  and  others. 

853.  I  have  already  commended  the  enterprise  of 
the  men  engaged  in  this  business,  as  affording  a  chan- 
nel through  which  the  sources  of  fertility,  ever  flow- 
ing from  the  country  to  the  city,  may  flow  back  again 
whence  they  came.  The  time  will  come  when  nearly 
all  the  mineral  elements  in  the  hay,  grain,  and  roots, 
brought  to  the  city,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  organic 
elements,  will  find  their  way  back  to  the  country ; 
those  in  a  heavier  form,  to  farms  near  the  city ;  and 
those  lighter  for  transportation,  to  farms  more  remote. 
Population  will  increase ;  there  will  be  new  facilities 


MANURES.  189 

for  transportation ;  and  the  very  sewers  of  Philadel- 
phia, New  York,  and  Boston,  will  empty  themselves 
into  the  country,  as  those  of  London  and  Paris  are 
now  doing. 

354.  Whether  the  farmer  can  yet  purchase  and 
transport  his  manures  from  a  distance  with  remune- 
rating returns,  is  for  him  to  decide.  He  should  read 
his  agricultural  papers ;  he  should  be  awake  on  the 
subject,  and  when  it  is  proved  to  his  sober  judgment, 
that  these  manures  will  increase  his  annual  profits,  he 
should  use  them. 

355.  Till  then,  let  him  husband  his  home  resources. 
On  these,  as  what  I  consider  his  great  if  not  his  only 
resources,  I  have  thought  proper  to  dwell.  In  doing 
so,  I  have  touched  upon  topics  which,  to  the  fastidious, 
may  seem  out  of  good  taste.  To  me  nothing  seems  in. 
had  tastej  or  undignified^  which  can,  by  possibility,  ad- 
vance the  great  interest  of  agriculture. 

356.  With  regard  to  the  home  means  for  recruiting 
lands,  the  rule  is,  that  nothing  be  lost.  Let  but  this  be 
carried  out,  and  our  farms  will  be  fertile.  Almost 
every  farm  affords  the  means  of  increasing  its  own 
fertility,  if  they  can  only  be  applied.  Correct  pro- 
cedure, in  this  respect,  cannot  fail  of  its  reward.  The 
farmer  who  fails  here,  I  repeat,  will  fail  throughout;  and 
the  one  who  manages  this  matter  rightly^  WILL  SUCCEED. 
Heave  up  your  peat,  your  swamp  muck,  your  rich 
loam,  if  you  have  notliing  better;  have  it  always  in 
readiness,  improving  by  age;    use  it  everywhere  OQ 


190  MANURES. 

your  premises  without  stint,  as  I  have  described,  only 
using  more  if  you  please ;  and,  depend  upon  it,  you 
will  reap  far  more  than  6  per  cent.,  or  12  either,  on  the 
cost  of  the  labor. 

857.  It  is  not  more  certain  that  a  snow-ball,  in 
thawy  weather,  will  grow  by  rolling  down  hill,  than 
that  good  farming — -feeding  the  land  well — tends  to  bet- 
ter ;  and  that  had  farming — starving  the  land — tends  to 
worse.  The  good  farmer  always  grows  a  better  far- 
mer as  life  advances.  I  have  seen  this  out  and  out.  He 
gets  a  fair  profit  on  his  crops,  and  an  additional  re- 
ward in  the  increasing  value  of  his  lands.  The  bad 
farmer  gets  but  a  small  profit  on  his  crops,  and  loses 
that  in  the  diminished  value  of  his  land.  Poor  and 
discouraged,  why  should  he  not  grow  a  worse  farmer  ? 
It  is  the  very  tendency  of  his  course.  It  is  hardly 
possible  that  he  should  make  any  other  progress  than 
from  bad  to  worse — poor  manuring,  poor  crops,  a  poor 
farm,  and  a  poor  man.  Well,  he  must  turn  over  a 
new  leaf;  and  the  very  starting  point  of  good  farming 
lies  in  the  generous  husbandry  and  plentiful  applica- 
tion of  the  home  manures.  This  consideration,  so  im- 
portant, as  I  view  it,  has  made  me  unwilling  to  leave 
this  subject  sooner. 


CHAPTER  YI. 
PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE 


RECAPmrLATION. 


358.  In  former  portions  of  this  work,  I  have  dwelt 
somewhat  upon  the  chemistry  of  common  objects^  hoping 
that  such  knowledge  as  I  have  endeavored  to  impart 
may  be  of  some  use  to  such  as  have  not  time  to  pur- 
sue the  subject  further.  I  have  spoken  briefly  of  the 
geological  formation  of  soils,  believing  that  the  farmer, 
as  he  ploughs  his  fields,  drains  his  lowlands,  or  looks 
after  his  herds  over  hill  and  dell,  and  along  babbling 
streams,  may  pursue  these  thoughts  with  pleasure  and 
profit.  I  have  also  spoken  of  plants  and  animals,  of 
their  relations  to  each  other ;  of  the  latter  as  the  con- 
sumers of  the  former's  produce,  paymasters  for  what- 
ever crops  he  produces.  Of  manures,  as  one  of  the 
returns  which  animals  make  for  their  food  and  care,  I 
have  spoken  at  length,  as  I  supposed  the  importance 
of  the  subject  required.  It  remains  to  apply  what- 
ever of  science  may  have  been  brought  into  notice  to 
practical  agriculture. 


192  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

LAND— OWNERSHIP. 

859.  In  most  of  the  European  countries,  land  is  not 
owned  hy  those  who  work  it.  The  farmer,  for  the  most 
part,  holds  his  land  on  a  lease  of  only  a  few  years* 
continuance.  A  strong  incentive  to  permanent  im- 
provement is  therefore  taken  away ;  for,  if  the  farmer 
makes  ever  so  great  improvements,  he  may  not  reap 
the  benefit  of  them  beyond  the  brief  term  of  his  lease. 

360.  Happily,  it  is  otherwise  in  our  country.  Here 
the  landlord  and  the  tenant  are  one  and  the  same.  If  he 
abuse  his  land  for  the  sake  of  present  income,  he,  and 
not  another,  is  the  loser.  If  he  manage  it  with  a  wise 
reference  to  future  productiveness,  he,  and  not  some 
hated  landlord,  is  the  gainer.  In  no  country  on  earth 
is  there  so  little  apology 'for  ''skinned  farms;"  and 
yet  such  farms  are  everywhere  seen. 

861.  About  as  much  labor  is  expended  as  will  suf- 
fice to  take  off  what  grows  spontaneously.  We  see 
buildings,  the  wear  and  tear  of  thirty  j'ears  excepted, 
what  they  were  when  the  occupant  was  a  young  man. 
There  are  few  or  no  permanent  fences ;  the  boulders 
about  the  premises  lie  where  the  drift  agency  left 
them ;  the  annual  produce  is  small,  and  growing  less ; 
the  children,  if  they  inherit  a  little  enterprise  from 
some  remote  ancestor,  are  all  gone  to  the  city  or  to 
the  great  West ;  and  the  farmer  himself,  if  not  pre- 
paring to  go  the  way  of  all  the  earth,  is  at  least  pre- 
paring his  farm  to  be  left  without  regret. 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  193 

362.  In  the  name  of  common  sense,  why  did  he  not 
double,  instead  of  halving  its  value  ?  He  might  have 
done  it,  and  yet  worked  no  harder,  "scrimped"  his 
family  less,  and  been  in  all  respects  much  more  of  a 
man.  A  little  improvement  each  day  of  thirty  years 
would  have  made  his  farm  a  thing  to  be  proud  of,  and 
would  have  secured  him  a  comfortable  income  in  old 
age.  This  man  failed  to  comprehend  and  to  sustain 
the  true  dignity  of  an  American  owner  of  land. 

363.  Other  farms  are  managed  as  if  the  owner  were 
conscious  that  he  is  the  owner  of  the  increased  value 
of  the  farm  as  well  as  of  its  annual  products.  The 
earth  is  grateful  for  such  treatment;  and  the  man 
who  manages  thus  makes  ''  his  mark"  on  the  world — 
marks  the  portion  which  falls  to  him  with  beauty  and 
fruitfulness. 

PERFECTION  OF  CROP-GROWING. 

364.  The  perfection  of  crop-growing  would  be,  that 
the  farmer  should  know  precisely  what  his  soil  con- 
tains and  what  his  crop  requires,  and  then  apply  such 
manures,  and  in  such  quantities,  as  would  supply  de- 
ficiencies, and  no  more.  By  less  than  supplying  defi- 
ciencies, he  diminishes  the  crop ;  by  more  than  sup- 
plying them,  he  diminishes  other  crops,  which  should 
have  taken  the  surplus  manure ;  and  let  it  be  observed, 
that  in  either  case  he  diminishes  the  amount  of  ma- 
nure on  that  farm  for  all  future  years.  It  should  be 
considered  that  a  load  of  manure,  well  applied  this 
year,  begets  a  load  next ;  that  another  the  third ;  and 


194:  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

I 

SO  on  perpetuall}^  It  is  on  this  principle  that  some 
farms  which  twenty  years  ago  gave  100  loads,  now 
give  but  50 ;  while  others  which  then  gave  100,  now 
give  200..  Good  management  has  doubled  the  amount 
in  one  case,  and  a  lack  of  good  management  has 
halved  it  in  the  other.  In  one  case  it  has  been  com- 
pound interest  in  ;  in  the  other  it  has  been  compound 
interest  out  The  owners,  with  few  exceptions,  are 
to-day  rich  or  poor  accordingly. 

B65.  This  shows  the  importance  of  so  applying  ma- 
nure that  it  will  progressively  beget  its  like.  It  shows 
also  that  the  perfection  of  crop-growing,  the  thing  to 
be  aimed  at,  is,  as  above  stated,  to  know  the  deficien- 
cies of  the  soil,  the  wants  of  the  crop,  and  the  ingre- 
dients of  manures,  and  to  apply  the  manures  accord- 
ingly. 

PERFECTION  NOT  ATTAINABLE. 

S6Q.  In  the  present  state  of  knowledge  such  perfec- 
tion is  not  attainable.  Scientific  investigation  and 
practical  experience  are  slowly,  but  surely,  advancing 
our  knowledge.  Knowledge  applied  to  agriculture 
will  render  attainable  that  which  is  now  unattainable. 
At  present  we  must  proceed  by  such  light  as  we  now 
enjoy — must  think  it  much  if  we  can  approximate 
what  posterity  will  attain. 

ANALYSES  OF  SOILS. 

367.   A  great  difference   exists  between  an  exact 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  195 

analysis  and  what  may  be  called  an  examination  of 
soils.  An  exact  chemical  analysis,  one  that  shall  de- 
tect all  the  ingredients  of  a  soil,  and  report  them  in 
their  true  proportions,  can  be  made  by  a  profound 
analytical  chemist  only.  He  must  have  studied  pro- 
foundly, and  practised  with  a  patience  that  few  pos- 
sess. Probably  there  are  not  yet  twenty  men  in  the 
whole  world  who  can  do  it  reliably.  An  examination 
of  soils  is  a  very  different  thing.  Almost  any  one  can 
do  something  of  this.  An  observing  farmer  can 
hardly  walk  across  a  field  without  forming  an  esti- 
mate of  its  value.  His  estimate  will,  in  most  cases, 
be  very  nearly  correct ;  and  let  it  be  observed,  that 
the  better  he  can  judge  of  a  soil  by  a  partial  examina- 
tion, the  better  he  is  prepared  for  his  profession.  The 
better  his  judgment  in  this  respect,  the  less  likely  will 
he  be  to  expend  labor  in  vain,  or  without  an  ade- 
quate return. 


THE    CHEMIST    ALONE    CAN    ANALYZE    SOILS- 
THE  PARMER  CAN  EXAMINE  THEM. 

868.  The  farmer  should  be  advised,  therefore,  tc 
leave  the  analysis  of  soils  to  the  chemist,  assured  that 
great  good  will  come  from  it  to  his  profession,  when- 
ever it  can  be  done  reliably^  by  State  patronage,  or  at 
such  reduced  cost  as  he  can  afford  to  meet.  In  the 
mean  time,  he  should  be  encouraged  to  examine  soils, 
and  to  cultivate  the  most  accurate  judgment  possible 
of  their  capabilities.  That  good  judgment,  which  I 
have  already  ascribed  to  farmers,  with  regard  to  the 


196  -PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE. 

capability  of  soils,  may  be  aided  by  attention  to  tlie 

following  paragrapbs. 


HOW^  TO  ESTIMATE  A  FARM. 

869.  In  order  to  make  my  observations  as  practical 
as  may  be,  I  will  suppose  that  I  were  about  to  pur- 
chase a  farm.  Let  it  be  supposed  to  be  at  a  fixed  price, 
and  my  only  question  to  be,  can  I  afford  to  give  that 
price? 

370.  In  the  first  place,  I  would  examine  that  farm, 
just  as  the  plainest  farmer  in  the  country  would.  I 
would  inspect  the  crops  now  on  the  farm.  I  would  as- 
certain what  had  been  done  to  make  them  what  they 
are.  I  would  inquire  what  amount  of  stock  had  been 
kept  on  the  farm  for  years  past ;  what  had  been  the 
character  of  the  stock  ;  whether  the  farm  is  well 
watered ;  whether  it  has  sufficient  wood  and  fencing 
stuff;  whether  the  buildings  are  in  good  condition  ;  if 
not,  what  amount  of  money  would  make  them  such  as 
would  satisfy  me;  whether  the  land  slopes  to  the 
south,  north,  east,  or  west,  or  is  level ;  whether  it 
is  adapted  to  the  kind  of  husbandry  which  I  have 
most  in  view ;  how  it  is  situated  with  relation  to  a 
village,  to  water  power,  and  to  market. 

VARIETY  OF  SOILS— NAMES. 

871.  If  these,  and  similar  questions,  were  satisfac- 
torily settled,  I  would  ascertain  whether  the  farm  was 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  197 

made  up  of  one  or  many  soils.  If  one  kind  prevailed 
through  the  whole,  it  might  be  worth  while  to  procure 
an  analysis,  as  in  that  case  a  single  analysis  would  ap- 
ply to  the  whole  farm ;  whereas,  if  there  were  various 
kinds  of  land,  several  analyses  would  be  required,  and 
the  expense  would  be  greater. 

372.  If  all  the  varieties  of  soil  were  found  on  this 
farm,  we  should  have,  according  to  a  classification,  re- 
commended by  Professor  Johnstone,  and  now  pretty 
generally  adopted : — 

1.  Pure  clay,  from  which  no  sand,  or  not  more  than  5 

per  cent,  can  be  washed ;  containing  about  60  per 
cent,  of  silica,  combined  with  about  40  of  alumi- 
na, as  silicate  of  alumina. 

2.  Strong  clay  soil,  suitable  for  brick,  containing  from 

6  to  20  per  cent,  of  silicious  sand. 

3.  Clay  loam,  having  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  of  fine 

sand. 

4.  Loam,  containing  from  40  to  70  per  cent,  of  sand. 

5.  Sandy  loam,  having  from  70  to  90  per  cent,  of  sand. 

6.  Sandy  soil,  having  upwards  of  90  per  cent,  of  sand. 

7.  Peat,  black   vegetable   matter,  similar  to   swamp 

muck,  except  that  it  is  filled  with  partly  decayed 
roots  and  stems  of  plants. 

8.  Swamp  muck,  black,  fine,  similar  to  the  last,  but 

containing  less,  of  partially  decayed  matter. 

373.  Soils  may  be  distinguished  according  to  this 
classification  in  the  following  manner : — Take  100  grains 
of  soil,  dried  on  white  paper,  at  a  temperature  as  high 


10S  PRACTICAL   AGKICULTURE. 

as  can  be,  without  scorching  the  paper ;  boil  it  a  few 
minutes;  then,  after  allowing  it  to  settle  about  one 
minute,  turn  off  the  water  with  the  light  clay  sus- 
pended in  it ;  add  more  water,  stir  it,  let  it  settle  as 
before,  and  turn  off  again ;  after  repeating  the  opera- 
tion several  times,  dry  and  weigh  ;  what  remains  in  the 
kettle  is  sand.  Should  nothing  remain,  or  anything 
less  than  5  grains,  it  belongs  to  the  first  class  above, 
namely,  pure  clay.  This,  however,  is  seldom  found, 
and  if  found,  is  valuable  for  other  than  agricultural 
'purposes.  If  from  5  to  20  per  cent,  remains,  it  is  of 
the  second  class,  a  strong  clay  soil.  Such  a  soil  as  this 
would  be  too  stiff  to  cultivate  without  amendment.  It 
might  be  amended  by  mixing  sand  with  it ;  and  might 
itself  be  valuable  for  amending  sandy  soils,  if  such  lay 
near  it,  so  that  the  farmer  could  cart  back  and  forth 
from  one  to  the  other.  If  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  of 
sand  were  found  in  the  kettle,  the  soil  would  be  of  the 
third  class,  a  clay  loam;  if  from  40  to  70,  a  loam;  if 
from  70  to  90,  a  sandy  loam;  if  from  90  upwards,  a 
sandy  soil.  Peat  and  swamp  muck  may  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  eye.  These  last  cannot  strictly  be 
regarded  as  soils;  they  are  collections  of  vegetable 
.  matter,  more  or  less  decayed ;  but  as  both  are  found 
to  considerable  extent,  it  seemed  convenient  to  arrange 
them,  as  above,  with  soils. 

CAPABILITIES  OF  A  FARM. 

374.  If  all  these  varieties  of  land  were  found  on  the 
tarm  I  am  speaking  of,  I  should  consider  it  the  more 
valuable,  because  then  the  various  parts  of  it  would 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.         199 

furnish  the  means  of  amending  other  parts.  It  may 
be  asked,  why  not  purchase  a  farm  which  is  good 
throughout,  and  needs  no  amendment  ?  The  answer  is, 
that  such  farms  are  seldom  found,  and  when  found,  the 
price  is  not  such  that  every  one  could  command  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  farms,  at  a  compa- 
ratively low  price,  on  which  are  facilities  for  makicig 
improvement,  at  a  cost  far  less  than  the  real  value  of 
the  improvement. 

375.  For  instance,  there  may  be  on  the  farm  I  am 
looking  at  a  ten-acre  slope  of  land,  with  the  best  possible 
exposure,  and  a  good  strong  soil,  but  producing  little, 
because  turf-boiHid  and  too  stony  to  cultivate.  I  may 
perceive  that  along  the  foot  of  this  slope,  adjoining 
the  highway,  is  an  old  rickety,  fallen-down  fence ;  that 
the  stones,  which  are  now  in  the  way  of  the  plough, 
are  well  adapted  to  making  a  heavy,  durable  wall  in 
the  place  of  the  old  fence  ;  that  they  would  need  to  be 
removed  but  a  few  rods,  and  that  down  the  hill ;  and 
this  slope  may  be  so  situated,  that  the  manuring  of  it 
from  the  barn-yard  would  be  a  down-hill,  easy  process. 
It  might  be  very  clear,  that  by  running  a  substantial 
wall  along  the  foot  of  this  slope,  50  rods,  at  an  expense 
of  2  dollars  a  rod,  and  thus  using  up  the  stones  on  and 
in  the  soil,  I  can  make  every  acre  worth  20  dollars  more 
than  is  now  asked  for  it.  If  so,  the  improvement  would 
cost  one  hundred  dollars,  but  would  be  worth  two 
hundred,  when  made. 

376.  Again,  there  might  be  on  this  farm  a  five-acre 
deposit  of  swamp  mud,  nearly  covered  with  water, 


200  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

and  producing  nothing  of  any  value.  It  might  ap- 
pear that  by  digging  a  deep  ditch  no  great  distance, 
the  water  might  be  drawn  off  and  the  land  made  ex- 
ceedingly fertile.  It  might  appear  also  that  the  mud 
which  would  be  taken  out,  would  be  worth  all  the 
labor,  to  amend  an  adjoining  patch  of  sandy  3oil,  and 
that  the  sand  might  be  brought  with  great  advantage, 
by  the  returning  team,  to  the  low  land.  In  this  case, 
an  improvement  could  be  made  at  an  expense  far  less 
than  its  v/orth. 

^7.  On  another  part  of  this  farm  might  be  a  de- 
posit of  pure  clay,  and  near  by  a  plot  of  sandy  loam, 
an  easy  soil  to  work,  and  giving  moderate  crops,  but 
not  having  sufficient  consistency  to  hold  manures.  A 
few  loads  of  clay  would  give  it  the  requisite  consis- 
tency. There  is  many  a  sandy  loam  which  would  be 
benefited  more  by  ten  loads  of  manure  and  ten  of  clay 
than  by  twenty  of  manure,  because  the  clay  enables 
the  soil  to  hold  the  manure,  whereas,  if  manure  be  ap- 
plied alone,  it  escapes  into  the  subsoil  and  into  the  air. 
This  I  suppose  to  be  one  of  these  cases,  and  it  is  evi- 
dent that  an  amendment  can  be  made  at  a  cost  less 
than  its  value. 

878.  There  may  be  on  another  part  of  the  farm  a 
sandy  loam  and  a  clay -soil,  at  no  great  distance  from 
each  other,  one  not  sufficiently  tenacious  to  render  it 
safe  to  commit  manure  to  its  keeping,  the  other  a  little 
too  tenacious  to  be  worked  comfortably.  It  is  evident 
that,  by  exchanging  a  few  loads  back  and  forth,  the 
faults  of  both  wilt  be  corrected.     The  clay-soil  will  be 


PRACTICAL     vGRICULTURE.  201 

made  less  refractory,  and  the  sandy  loam  will  be  made 
capable  of  holding  manure,  and  valuable  amendments 
will  have  been  achieved  at  a  trifling  expense. 

379.  In  purchasing  a^arm,  we  should  not  look  at  it 
merely  as  it  2*5,  but  as  it  may  he.  We  should  study  its 
capabilitiesj  see  how  they  can  be  developed,  and  count 
the  cost^  and  the  probable  return. 

880.  I  have  spoken  of  a  general  distribution  of  soils 
into  claysj  clay-soils,  clay-loa'ins,  loams,  sandy-loam^, 
sands  J  &c.  It  remains  to  speak  of  their  physical  pro- 
jperties. 

DENSITY,  OR  WEIGHT. 

881.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  we  speak  of  a  clayey 
soil  as  heavy,  and  of  a  sandy  soil  as  light,  meaning  that 
the  first  is  difficidt  to  work,  and  the  second  easy.  If 
we  speak  of  them  with  reference  to  their  absolute 
weight,  the  reverse  is  true — clayey  soils  are  light,  and 
sandy  soils  heavy. 

882.  A  sandy  soil  weighs  about  112  lbs.  to  the 
square  foot ;  *a  strong  clay  soil,  from  90  to  100  ;  com- 
mon arable  land,  from  80  to  90 ;  garden  mould,  as  it 
is  more  or  less  rich,  from  70  to  80 ;  and  a  peaty  soil, 
from  50  to  70.  Clear  peat,  perfectly  dry,  sometimes 
weighs  as  light  as  30  lbs.  to  the  square  foot.  In  the 
foregoing  cases  the  soil  is  supposed  to  be  slightly 
luoist.  The  denser  a  soil  is,  the  longer  will  it  retain 
its  heat  after  sunset,  or  in  a  cold  wind.     A  peaty  soil 

9* 


202  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

cools  as  much  in  an  hour  as  a  clay  soil  in  an  hour  and 
twenty  minutes,  or  a  sandy  soil  in  two  hours. 

FINENESS    WITH    WHICH    SOILS    ARE    DIVIDED. 

383.  Some  soils  are  more  finely  divided  than  others. 
The  degrees  of  fineness  may  be  compared  by  sifting 
dried  soils  through  a  coarse  sieve.  The  finer  they  are 
the  better,  if  their  chemical  composition  is  the  same. 

ADHESIVENESS   OF  SOILS. 

384.  When  soils  are  wet,  they  are  more  adhesive 
than  when  dry  ;  and  those  which  are  clayey  are  more 
adhesive  than  those  which  are  sandy.  The  particles 
of  the  former  adhere  to  each  other,  forming  hard 
lumps,  while  those  of  the  latter  readily  crumble  in 
pieces.  It  follows,  that  of  two  soils,  equally  produc- 
tive, one  may  be  cultivated  at  a  profit,  because  it  can 
be  worked  at  a  small  expense  ;  while  the  other,  being 
expensive  to  work,  'cannot  be  cultivated  but  at  a  less 
profit. 

POWER  OF  ABSORBING  MOISTURE. 

385.  This  quality  of  soils  may  be  compared  by  dry- 
ing a  quantity  of  different  soils,  and  then  exposing 
them  to  the  air.  If  you  dry  a  soil  as  dry  as  it  can 
be  made,  by  spreading  it  on  a  piece  of  sheet-iron,  and 
holding  it  over  boiling  water,  or  by  p^itting  it  into  an 
oven  of  about  the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  and 
then  exposing  it  to  the  air,  it  will  be  found  gradually 
to  increase  in  weight,  in  consequence  of  the  water  it 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  208 

absorbs  from  the  atmosphere.  Peats  and  clays  possess 
this  power  ia  the  highest  degree.  The  absorbing 
power  of  other  soils — those  neither  peaty  nor  clayey 
— forms  an  important  means  of  estimating  their  value. 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy  found  that  1,000  lbs.  of  soils  of 
various  qualities  absorb  in  an  hour  as  follows : 

A  very  fertile  soil  from  East  Lothian,  -  18  lbs. 

A  fertile  soil  in  Somersetshire,    -        -  -  16    " 

A  soil  worth  453.,      -        -        -        -  -  13    " 

A  sandy  soil  worth  28s.,     -        -        -  -  11    " 

Coarse  sand  worth  los.,      -        -        -  -  8    " 

Heath  soil  worth  Httle  or  nothing,       -  -  3    ** 

By  means  of  this  absorption  of  water  during  the 
night,  a  portion  of  the  moisture,  which  plants  lose  by 
perspiration  in  the  day-time,  is  restored  to  them 
through  their  roots. 

POWER  OP  CONTAINING  "WATER. 

386.  If  we  put  different  soils  upon  a  fine  strainer, 
previously  saturated  with  water,  and  then  let  water 
fall  upon  them,  drop  by  drop,  till  it  begins  to  run 
through  and  fall  below,  we  shall  find  that  some  will 
contain  a  much  larger  amount  of  water  than  others. 
According  to  Prof  Johnson,  106  lbs. 

Of  dry  quartz  sand  will  hold       -         -         -  25  lbs. 

Of  calcareous  (limy)  sand,  -        -        -        -  29    " 

Of  loamy  soil, 40    " 

Of  English  chalk, 45    « 

Of  clay  loam, 50    " 

Of  pure  clay,      ------  7o    " 

Of  a  peaty  soil,  ------  still  more. 


204  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

It  is  also  found  that  some  soils  retain  water  much 
more  strongly  than  others  when  exposed  to  a  dry  at- 
mosphere. Thus,  if  you  should  moisten  a  handful  of 
dried  sand,  another  handful  of  dried  clay,  and  another 
of  dried  peat,  with  equal  portions  of  water,  and  ex- 
pose them  to  a  dry  atmosphere,  the  sand  will  lose  its 
water  two  or  three  times  as  fast  as  the  clay,  and  three 
or  four  times  as  fast  as  the  peat. 


CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION. 

387.  If  you  thrust  one  end  of  a  small  glass  tube 
into  water,  the  water  will  rise  inside  of  the  tube  higher 
than  its  surface  on  the  outside.  It  is  drawn  up  by  the 
attraction  of  the  glass,  called  capillary  attraction.  The 
same  takes  place  in  a  sponge,  which  is  but  a  collection 
of  small  tubes.  If  the  lower  part  of  the  sponge 
touches  the  surface  of -the  water,  the  water  will  be 
drawn  upward,  and  will  fill  the  whole.  So  if  a  snow- 
ball be  brought  into  contact  with  water,  the  same  will 
take  place. 

888.  This  capillary  attraction  exists  in  soils.  If  you 
fill  a  cup  with  dry  soil,  after  having  made  a  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  cup,  and  then  place  it  in  a  broad 
dish  containing  a  little  water,  the  water  will  find  its 
way  upward,  till  it  moistens  the  whole  soil,  and  ap- 
pears on  the  surface,  It  is  thus  in  the  open  field. 
Water  in  the  subsoil  is  drawn  upward  by  capillary 
attraction.  If  there  is  a  surplus  of  water  in  the  sub- 
soil, it  is  drawij  upward  \n  too  great  quantities. 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  205 

289.  This  should  be  explained!  Whenever  water 
evaporates,  it  carries  off  a  great  deal  of  heat.  If  a 
kettle  of  water  is  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  212^,  it 
is  made  no  hotter  by  fire  below.  Why  ?  Because 
the  evaporation  from  the  surface  carries  off  just  as 
much  heat  as  the  fire  infuses  from  beneath.  It  is  so 
with  a  field,  when  the  subsoil  is  full  of  water.  The 
water  creeps  upward  to  the  surface,  and  is  there  evap- 
orated. At  the  moment  of  its  being  changed  from  a 
liquid  to  a  vapor,  it  absorbs  heat.  This  heat  it  steals 
away  from  the  soil  and  the  adjoining  stratum  of  air, 
leaving  the  surface  chill  and  cold. 

390.  If  the  sun  shine  upon  such  a  soil,  it  may  infuse 
a  little  more  heat  in  the  middle  of  the  day  than  the 
evaporation  carries  off;  but  when  the  sun  declines, 
the  power  of  evaporation  overmasters  that  of  the  sun, 
and  the  soil  again  becomes  cold.  Such  lands  are  often 
the  best  in  the  world  after  being  thoroughly  drained, 
but  till  drained  will  produce  nothing  of  much  value. 

391.  A  soil  that  is  finely  pulverized,  permits  the 
water  to  pass  through  it  freely,  whether  upward  or 
downward.  The  progress  is  downward  after  rains, 
and  upward  after  evaporation.  It  may  be  laid  down 
as  certain,  that  the  moisture  in  a  cultivated  soil  is  sel- 
dom stationary.  It  is  always  seeking,  like  the  water 
in  a  sponge,  to  equalize  itself  throughout  the  mass. 
If  you  hold  a  saturated  sponge  just  below  a  strong 
heat,  the  water  in  it  will  rise,  and  will  nearly  all 
escape,  in  the  form  of  vapor,  from  the  top.  So  it  is 
with  the  soil.     There  falls  a  heavy  rain.    The  top-soil 


206  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

is  more  fully  supplied  with  water  than  the  soil  below. 
A  part  of  the  water  will  slowly  find  its  way  down- 
ward, in  order  to  equalize  itself  throughout.  When 
it  has  attained  something^ like  an  equilibrium,  its  tend- 
ency would  be  to  remain  nearly  stationary,  if  there  were 
a  damp  atmosphere  and  no  sun.  But  if  the  sun  shine, 
the  air  in  contact  with  the  soil  becomes  heated ;  it  takes 
moisture  from  the  soil ;  the  surface  becomes  dry,  and 
the  water  below  moves  upward. 


RELATIONS  OF  SOIL  TO  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

392.  Soils  not  only  require,  in  order  to  be  produc- 
tive, that  thfe  air  should  permeate  them,  but  they  have 
the  power  of  absorbing  from  the  air  various  gases, 
and  of  retaining  them  for  the  use  of  plants.  Among 
these  gases  are  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  the  principal 
constituents  of  the  atmosphere ;  also,  ammonia,  car- 
bonic acid,  and  various  other  gases,  which  are  per- 
manently or  incidentally  floating  in  the  atmosphere. 

893.  Peaty  soils  have  this  power  of  absorbing  nu- 
tritious gases  from  the  air  in  the  highest  degree. 
Hence  while  peat,  or  swamp  nud,  is  in  process  of  cuV' 
ing^  before  being  used  in  composts,  it  is  continually 
growing  better,  not  only  by  losing  its  coldness  and 
sourness,  while  exposed  to  sun,  air,  and  rain,  but  by 
the  absorption  of  nutritious  gases  from  the  air. 

394.  Clay,  next  after  peat,  possesses  this  power  in 
a  high  degree.     Loams  possess  it  in  a  greater  or  less 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  207 

degree,  according  as  they  contain  more  or  less  clay ; 
and  sandy  soils  possess  it  in  tlie  lowest  degree  of  all. 


APPLICATION  or  MANURES 

395.  From  what  has  now  been  said,  it  will  be  seen, 
that  when  we  spread  peat,  swamp  mud,  or  fermented 
manures  upon  our  soils,  we  not  only  supply  them  with 
organic  matter,  but  we  give  them  that  which  enables 
them  to  draw  more  from  the  atmosphere  for  the  ben- 
efit of  our  plants. 

896.  It  will  also  be  seen  from  the  above  remark  that 
when  we  mix  clay  with  a  sandy  soil,  we  not  only  ren- 
der the  soil  more  compact,  more  capable  of  holding 
water  and  manures,  but  w^e  make  it  capable  of  ab- 
sorbing nutritious  gases — a  power  which  it  before 
lacked. 

897.  But  suppose  such  a  farm  as  I  a  little  while  ago 
described  were  now  purchased.  The  buyer  is  no  lon- 
ger looking  at  it  with  reference  to  a  purchase  ;  but  is 
solving  the  question  how  he  shall  manage  it.  Sup- 
pose it  to  be  in  April ;  and  suppose  the  purchaser  to 
be  in  such  circumstances  that  it  becomes  necessary  to 
make  the  farm  produce  the  means  for  its  own  improve- 
ment. He  cannot  make  them  all  at  once.  It  must  be 
a  gradual  operation,  of  many  years.  He  finds  the 
buildings  out  of  repair,  the  fences  down,  the  manure 
to  be  put  upon  the  land,  ploughing,  sowing,  planting, 
hoeing,  haying,  and  summer  harvesting,  all  just  be- 


208  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

fore  him.  Permanent  repairs  and  all  great  improve- 
ments must  give  place  for  a  while  to  the  ordinary  op- 
erations of  growing  and  securing  crops. 

398.  Among  the  first  things  to  be  done  will  be,  to 
put  the  manure  on  the  land.  Here  great  judgment  is 
to  be  exercised.  We  will  suppose  that  there  is  a  quan- 
tity of  green  manure  about  the  stable  windows,  con- 
sisting almost  wholly  of  the  solid  excrements  of  ani- 
mals. The  liquid  excrements  have  probably  run  to 
waste.  Such  is  yet  the  practice  on  most  farms. 
Farmers  have  not  learned  that  by  losing  the  liquids 
of  the  barn  and  yard,  they  lose  the  most  valuable 
part.  We  will  suppose  also  that  there  is  a  quantity 
of  yard-manure,  consisting  of  the  excrements  of  ani- 
mals ;  peat,  swamp  mud,  road-scrapings,  brought  to 
the  yard  the  fall  before  ;  and  such  coarse  hay,  straw, 
and  stalks,  as  may  have  been  trodden  down  the  past 
winter.  If  the  former  occupant  were  not  a  miserable 
farmer,  he  will  find  also  a  quantity  of  partly  artificial 
manure,  composed  of  say  one-third  excrements  of  ani- 
mals, and  two-thirds  peat,  swamp  mud,  road-scrapings, 
&c.,  together  with  a  few  ashes,  and  a  little  plaster  and 
salt,  now  all  composted  together  and  fermented  by  a 
slow  process  into  a  rich,  black,  carbonaceous  mass, 
quite  as  valuable  as  clear  barn-yard  manure.  He  will 
be  likely  also  to  find  a  quantity  of  hog-manure,  a  few 
loads  of  settlings  about  the  sink,  and  a  load  or  two  of 
night-soil.  These  are  an  important  part  of  his  capi- 
tal, on  which  to  work  the  first  summer ;  and  if  he  is 
a  wise  man,  he  will  take  good  care  to  double  this  part 
of  "his  capital  for  the  second  year. 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  209 

399.  Now  it  is  manifest  that  if  he  knew  the  exact 
deficiencies  of  his  soils  and  the  exact  ingredients  of 
these  manures,  he  could  appropriate  them  to  the  best 
possible  advantage.  This,  however,  he  does  not  know ; 
and  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge,'  he  cannot. 
But  it  is  evident,  that  if  he  has  been  an  observing 
man,  he  can  appropriate  them,  on  the  ground  of  an 
enlightened  judgment,  made  up  bj  experience,  so  that 
thej  will  make  him  twice  the  return  they  would  if 
thrown  out  at  random.  This  last  may  seem  to  some 
extravagant,  but  it  is  true  nevertheless.  Some  farmers, 
for  years,  have  not  only  made  twice  as  much  manure  as 
others^  with  equal  means^  hut  have  so  appropriated  it,  as 
to  get  twice  the  return  for  the  sam,e  amount^  thus  quadru- 
pling the  actual  return  for  the  whole. 

400.  Now  what  shall  the  farmer  do  with  these  ma- 
nures ?  We  will  begin  with  the  solid  excrements  un- 
der the  stable  windows,  premising,  however,  that  there 
ought  to  have  been  none  such,  for  there  ought  to 
have  been  mixed  with  the  manure  in  the  stables  at 
least  an  equal  amount  of  dried  peat  or  something  of 
the  kind,  by  which  all  the  liquid  would  have  been  ab- 
sorbed, instead  of  running  away  into  the  ground.  We 
might  go  farther,  and  say  that  there  ought  to  have 
been  a  barn  cellar,  in  which  all  the  manure,  solid  and 
liquid,  together  with  as  much  dried  peat,  mud  or  rich 
loam,  should  have  been  finely  composted  together, 
and  that  a  little  plaster  should  have  been  thrown  on, 
from  time  to  time,  to  check  the  too  rapid  fermenta- 
tion and  to  fix  the  ammonia,  thus  bringing  the  ma- 
nure into  the  right  state  to  be  used,  exactly  at  the 


210  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

right  time  to  use  it.     By  such  management  its  value 
might  have  been  doubled  at  least. 


GREEN    STABLE    MANURE. 

401.  But  our  farmer,  on  his  new  place,  has  to  take 
things  as  he  finds  them.  All  experience  teaches  that 
this  green  manure  is  more  valuable  to  compost  with 
cheaper  materials  than  to  use  as  it  is.  But  he  cannot 
do  everything  at  first  as  he  would,  nor  as  he  will  bj- 
and-bje.  He  may  conclude  to  use  half  of  this  stable 
manure  as  it  is,  and  to  reserve  the  other  half  to  com- 
post during  the  summer. 

402.  If  he  were  to  put  the  half  to  be  now  used  into 
a  sandy  soil,  or  a  light  loam  even,  valuable  portions 
of  it  would  escape  into  the  air.  If  he  put  it  on  the 
surface  of  mow-land,  there  is  danger  that  at  will  dry 
up,  that  too  much  of  it  will  evaporate,  and  that  the 
rest  will  be  rather  in  the  way  of  the  scythe,  than  pro- 
fitable to  the  crop.  This  latter  mode  of  applying  it 
would  result  well  if  the  season  should  be  warm  and 
wet;  but  as  this  is  always  doubtful  beforehand,  the 
application  would  at  best  be  too  uncertain.  He  should 
rather  apply  it  to  plough-land,  but  to  such  as  is  clayey, 
or  at  least  a  heavy  loam,  in  which  case  its  virtues  will 
be  held  in  the  soil ;  and  such,  portions  as  are  not  ex- 
hausted by  the  first  crop  will  be  retained  for  the  use 
of  future  crops.  Stable  manures,  uncomposted,  yield 
a  large  amount  of  nutritious  gases ;  and  there  is  hard- 
ly a  more  important  principle  in  agriculture,  than  to 
put  them  into  soils  which  have  a  sufficient  retaining 


PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE.  211 

power  to  nold  them  for  the  use  of  crops,  instead  of 
letting  them  escape  into  the  air.  Sandy  soils  and  light 
loams  are  not  equal  to  the  trust.  Within  my  own  ob- 
servation, 80  loads  of  green  manure  were  ploughed 
into  an  acre  of  sandy  loam  in  the  spring  of  1850.  It 
gave  45  bushels  of  corn.  On  the  same  acre,  30  loads 
of  similar  manure  were  ploughed  in,  in  the  spring  of 
1852.  The  crop  was  estimated  at  45  bushels,  making 
90  bushels  both  years,  worth  considerably  less  than 
the  60  loads  of  manure ;  and  the  worst  part  of  the 
story  is,  that  the  land  was  not  much  amended ;  it 
would  hardly  produce  another  crop,  without  more 
manure.  On  similar  lands  I  have  seen  better  corn 
grown,  with  7  loads  of  such  manure,  composted  with 
twice  its  amount  of  peat,  and  the  land  essentially 
amended  for  years  to  come. 

BARN-YARD   MANURE. 

403.  With  regard  to  the  coarser  barn-yard  manure, 
it  contains,  in  the  substances,  mixed  with  the  excre- 
ments, that  which  is  adapted  to  retain  the  nutritious 
gases  of  the  latter.  It  may  therefore  with  less  waste 
be  applied,  if  not  too  coarse,  as  a  dressing  to  grass- 
lands, or  harrowed  into  plough-lands.  If  it  be  thrown 
up  into  heaps,  a  few  days  beforehand,  and  slightly 
fermented,  and  a  little  plaster  be  added  to  prevent  the 
•Bcape  of  ammonia,  it  will  be  more  than  enough  better 
to  pay  the  extra  expense. 

COMPOST. 

404.  The  composted  manure,  if  he  were  so  fortunata 


212  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

as  to  find  any  left  by  the  former  occupant,  would  be 
good  for  almost  any  kinds  of  land.  It  might  be  used 
as  a  dressing  to  mow-lands,  or  be  harrowed  into  light- 
ish plough-lands,  or  put  into  hills  for  corn.  It  would 
be  best,  however,  not  to  apply  it  to  land  of  a  character 
similar  to  that  from  which  a  large  portion  of  it  had 
been  taken.  If  it  was  of  peat,  it  would  not  be  well 
to  put  it  on  a  peaty  soil ;  or,  if  it  was  made  in  part 
of  swamp  mud,  it  would  be  bad  policy  to  put  it  back 
upon  a  swampy  portion  of  the  fiirm.  As  it  consists 
of  course  largely  of  vegetable  matter,  it  would  do 
more  good  on  a  sandy  or  loamy  soil,  in  which  organic 
matter  is  deficient. 

HOG  MANURE— SINK  SETTLINGS— CHIP  MANURE. 

405.  As  hog  manure  is  known  to  act  very  quickly, 
and  is  liable  to  fail  towards  the  last  of  the  season,  it 
would  seem  reasonable  that  it  should  be  mixed  with 
other  kinds  that  operate  more  slowly,  that  the  mix- 
ture might  have  the  advantage  both  of  acting  quickly 
and  permanently.  The  same  remark  applies  to  horse 
manure.  It  is  better  that  both  should  be  mixed  with 
other  manures. 

406.  The  settlings  about  the  sink  are  particularly 
rich  in  a  few  ingredients.  More  benefit  therefore 
might  be  expected  from  mixing  them  with  other  ma- 
nures, so  that  they  would  cover  a  larger  space,  than 
by  concentrating  them  on  a  small  patch.  If  chip  ma- 
nure should  be  found  on  the  premises  in  large  quan- 
tities, as  sometimes  happens,  it  should  either  be  spread 


PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE.  213 

on  moderately  wet  mowing,  in  which  there  is  little 
peat  or  black  mud;  or  it  may  advantageously  be  ap- 
plied to  potatoes  in  the  hill,  especially  if  the  land  be 
not  very  well  supplied  with  organic  matter.  In  either 
of  these  cases — on  wettish  mow-land,  or  in  the  hills 
of  a  potato  field— it  will  give  an  excellent  return. 

NIGHT-SOIL. 

407.  Night-soil  should  be  removed  to  the  land  every 
spring.  Its  value,  as  a  fertilizer,  is  greatly  increased,  if 
mixed  with  6  or  8  times  its  bulk  of  dried  peat  or  swamp 
mud.  Its  value  would  be  still  more  increased,  if  the 
peat  or  mud,  in  a  dry  state,  could  have  been  thrown 
in  with  it  daily,  or  once  in  a  few  days  during  the  pre- 
vious year ;  and  this  either  with  or  without  (better 
with)  a  little  plaster,  would  have  prevented  the  bad 
smell  from  that  source,  which  is  too  often  noticed 
about  premises.  Poudrette  can  be  prepared  in  this 
way  at  little  expense,  and  quite  as  effective  as  much 
that  is  offered  in  market  at  a  high  price.  Night-soil 
is  valuable  for  grass-land  and  for  all  kinds  of  grain. 
In  whatever  form  it  is  used,  it  should  be  spread  thinly 
over  a  large  surface,  rather  than  be  put  in  large  quan- 
tities in  one  place. 

"  408.  There  is  another  article  to  which  the  last  re- 
mark applies  with  great  force.  It  is  old  plastering 
from  the  walls  of  rooms.  This  contains  silicate  of 
lime,  carbonate  of  lime,  hair,  and  what  is  of  more 
value  than  all  the  rest,  nitrate  of  lime.  This  last  is  a 
very  soluble  salt,  and  is  so  valuable  for  any  of  the 


214  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

grain  crops,  but  more  especially  for  Avheat,  that  not  a 
particle  of  it  should  be  lost.  Every  ounce  of  old  plas- 
tering should  be  put  upon  the  field.  Even  the  rubbish 
of  old  brick  walls  should  be  pounded  up  and  put  upon 
the  land.  But  this  and  old  plastering  should  be  spread 
thinly  over  a  large  surface.  Probably  a  ton  of  either, 
if  mixed  with  a  compost  that  was  to  cover  5  acres, 
would  benefit  the  first  year's  crop  more  than  5  tons 
spread  on  a  single  acre. 

409.  Whether  the  new  occupant  of  this  farm  should 
go  largely  into  the  use  of  plaster  is  a  question  for  him 
to  settle  on  the  ground.  He  should,  at  any  rate,  have 
some  on  hand  to  use  about  his  manures.  There  is  a 
strong  presumption  in  favor  of  plaster  on  a  farm  upon 
which  nothing  is  known  of  its  effects  by  experience. 
He  should  inquire  of  his  neighbors.  If  their  testimony 
is  against  the  use  of  plaster  in  that  region,  let  him  not 
believe  it,  but  let  him  make  the  trial  for  himself. 
He  may  make  it  on  a  small  scale  at  first,  so  as  not  to 
injure  him  much  if  it  fails.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
testimony  of  the  neighborhood  is  favorable  to  the  use 
of  plaster,  he  might  take  it  as  undoubted.  A  hundred 
neighborhoods  have  testified  falsely  against  the  use  of 
plaster  in  their  particular  location,  to  where  one  has 
over-estimated  its  value.  Very  few  are  the  locations 
where  plaster  is  not  worth  the  purchase-money  or 
more. 

410.  It  is  very  true  that  plaster  cannot  be  relied 
upon  alone.  It  is  not  a  manure  in  the  fullest  sense  of 
the  word.     It  contains  but  two  ingredients,  and  those 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  216 

are  not  all  that  plants  need.  Plants  could  not  grow 
in  plaster  alone^  but  that  does  not  prove  that  they 
should  have  none.  The  truth  is,  it  acts  partly  as  a  ma- 
nure — feeding  the  plants  with  its  sulphuric  acid  and 
lime,  the  very  ingredients  which  clover,  corn,  pota- 
toes, and  some  other  crops  largely  require — and  partly 
as  a  stimulant — hastening,  by  its  lime,  the  decay  of 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil.  In  other  words,  it  feeds 
the  plants  a  part  of  their  food,  and  it  hurries  the  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil  to  feed  them  more.  On  dry  soils  it 
performs  another  important  office — that  of  attracting 
moisture.  Some  say  it  has  not  this  effect.  I  know 
very  well  that  in  its  unaltered  state  it  has  not.  Set 
an  open  barrel  of  plaster  in  the  air,  and  it  will  remain 
dry.  But  it  does  not  long  remain  unaltered  about  the 
roots  of  plants.  The  sulphuric  acid  and  the  lime  part 
company,  and  in  their  transformations  they  perform 
the  three  offices  I  have  described— /eec?  the  plants^  con- 
vert half  decomposed  matter  into  vegetable  nutriment^  and 
attract  moisture  from  the  air  and  from  the  subsoil.  This 
last  office  is  important  on  lands  that  are  dry.  On  wet 
.lands  it  should  not  be  used  till  they  have  been  tho- 
roughly drained. 

411.  Plaster  will  not  do  well  permanently  without 
other  manure.  It  requires  that  organic  matter  should 
be  present.  In  pastures  this  is  supplied  by  the  drop- 
pings of  the  cattle  and  by  the  decay  of  grass  roots. 
On  mowings  it  should  be  supplied  by  top-dressings , 
and  on  plough-lands  by  harrowing  in  manure.  It  would 
be  as  unreasonable  to  complain  of  plaster  because  it 
will  not  act  well  always  without  other  manure,  as  to 


216  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

find  fault  witli  roast-beef  because  it  does  not  afford 
a  suitable  diet  without  other  food.  The  same 
might  be  said  of  ashes.  Land  dressed  with  ashes 
alone,  will  soon  be  found  in  a  sad  condition  ;  and  yet 
the  potash,  soda,  and  lime  they  contain,  are  worth  far 
moie  for  agricultural  purposes  than  the  price  generally 
allowed  by  soap-boilers.  Their  alkaline  salts  act  fa- 
vorably upon  the  silicates  in  the  soil ;  they  render  in- 
soluble silica  soluble^  and  are  therefore  valuable  on  up- 
lands ;  while  on  peaty  lands,  if  well  drained,  and  on 
any  lands,  which  abound  in  inert  vegetable  matter, 
their  value  is  very  great. 

DEEP  PLOUGHING. 

412.  If  our  farmer  on  his  new  farm  has  disposed  of 
his  manures,  provided  his  summer's  stock  of  fael,  and 
made  such  repairs  as  are  absolutely  necessary  in  tha 
outset,  he  will  now  find  himself  in  the  business  of 
ploughing  and  getting  in  his  seeds.  The  limits  of  thit 
work  will  not  allow  me  to  follow  him  through  his  sum- 
mer's career.  A  few  things,  however,  I  am  not  willing 
to  pass  in  silence.     One  is  the  matter  of  ploughing. 

413.  From  what  was  said  on  the  subject  of  capillary 
attraction,  we  derive  important  rales  with  regard  to 
ploughing.  The  upward  and  downward  movement 
of  the  water  extends  far  into  the  ground,  if  there  is 
no  impervious  stratum.  If  there  is  a  stratum  near  the 
surface,  through  which  water  cannot,  pass  freely,  an 
important  process  of  nature  favorable  to  vegetation  is 
impeded.     Th-'  water  of  excessive  rains  should  pass 


.  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE.  ^^17 

off  without  obstruction  into  the  earth,  and  the  upward 
flow  of  water,  after  evaporation,  should  be  unimpeded, 
in  order  to  supply  the  surface  soil  after  a  drouth.  All 
who  have  tried  deep  ploughing  have  become  satisfied 
that  their  fields  are  dryer  for  it  in  rainy  weather,  and 
moister  in  dry  weather.  This  accords  perfectly  with 
the  principles  now  explained.  There  may  be  soils 
lying  on  so  porous  a  subsoil  that  it  would  be  well  to 
cultivate  shallow.  The  farmer  must  look  to  this.  In 
extreme  cases,  he  may  find  a  subsoil  so  open  and  po- 
rous that  to  stir  it  might  be  like  knocking  the  bottom 
out,  to  let  his  top-soil  fall  into  the  earth  and  be  lost 
among  coarse  pebbles. 

414.  Whenever  the  soil  is  deep  and  the  subsoil  com- 
pact, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  deep  ploughing  is 
greatly  beneficial.  If  plants  can  have  ten  inches  of 
loosened  soil  into  which  to  thrust  their  roots  for  food, 
they  are  like  a  herd  of  cattle  in  a  pasture  of  ten  acres ; 
while  if  they  have  but  five,  they  are  like  the  same 
herd  confined  to  a  five-acre  lot. 

416.  On  all  ordinary  soils,  ploughing  should  be  at 
least  ten  inches  deep ;  and  then,  if  the  soil  below  that 
depth  appears  hard  and  compact,  especially  if  there  is 
anything  like  a  shell  or  crust,  through  which  water 
cannot  pass  freely,  it  should  be  stirred  with  the  sub- 
soil plough  as  much  deeper.  The  water  can  then  pass 
up  and  down  freely.  All  danger  from  excessive  rains 
is  removed,  because  the  water  readily  passes  away 
from  the  roots  of  plants ;  and  all  danger  from  drouth 
is  removed,  or  nearly  all,  because  the  water  will  freely 
10 


218  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

pass  upward  by  capillary  attraction ;  and  it  should  be 
remembered  that  every  particle  of  water  which  rises 
towards  the  surface,  comes  loaded  with  salts,  which  it 
brings  from  deep  in  the  earth  and  deposits  within 
reach  of  the  roots  of  plants.  Water  so  rising  is  never 
pure.  If  it  enters  the  roots  of  plants,  it  carries  salts 
along  with  it.  If  it  evaporates,  it  leaves  its  salts  be- 
hind, having  brought  them  up  no  doubt  in  many 
cases  from  deeper  in  the  ground  than  roots  penetrate. 

416.  Thus  we  see  that  water  acts  not  only  as  the 
drink  of  plants  which  they  take  in  principally  by 
their  roots,  but  also  as  a  carrier  of  food  for  them.  It 
washes  the  air  of  all  those  impurities  which  would 
render  it  unfit  to  breathe.  Falling  as  rain,  it  brings 
to  the  roots  of  plants,  as  food,  whatever  impurities  the 
air  contains;  and  then,  after  sinking  deep  in  the 
earth,  it  is  drawn  back  by  capillary  attraction,  bring- 
ing with  it  such  salts  as  it  may  have  found  and  dis- 
solved by  the  way. 

417.  The  free  passage  of  the  air  through  the  soil  is 
almost  as  important  as  that  of  water.  These  con- 
siderations are  worthy  of  the  attentive  study  of  the 
practical  farmer.  They  teach  him  how  to  prepare  his 
lands  for  crops.  There  must  be  in  the  soil  that  which 
the  plant  requires ;  and  not  only  so,  but  it  must  be 
brought  within  the  reach  of  the  plant.  Water  and  air 
are  the  plant's  travelling  agents.  They  must  have 
free  course ;  and  to  this  end,  the  soil  must  be  deeply 
mellowed.  It  would  not  be  extravagant  to  say,  that 
after  having  manured  your  soil  the  best  you  can,  you 


PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE.  219 

have  not  put  within  the  reach  of  plant-roots  all  that 
they  require ;  that  still  food  is  to  be  brought  to  them 
all  the  way  from  far  above  the  surface  Ox  the  field  to 
far  below  it,  and  that  water  and  air  are  the  carriers. 

418.  There  is  hardly  a  more  important  principle  in 
agriculture  than  the  one  I  have  now  endeavored  to 
illustrate — that  of  deeply  ploughing  and  finely  pul- 
verizing the  soil.  A  caution  is,  however,  here  neces- 
sary. Suppose  a  field  has  hllherto  been  skimmed 
over  to  a  depth  of  only  five  inches.  Just  at  the  ter- 
mination of  these  five  inches  is  what  may  be  denomi- 
nated the  plough-floor — that  stratum  of  earth  on. 
which  the  plough  has  always  run,  about  as  hard  as  a 
cart-path.  Above  this  is  a  thin  and  exhausted  soil. 
All  below  is  hard,  impenetrable  by  the  roots  of 
plants,  and  almost  impervious  to  water. 

419.  If  now  the  plough  be  put  down  to  twice  the 
depth  before  reached,  and  the  whole  ten  inches  invert- 
ed, it  is  manifest  that  the  surface  will  be  made  up  of 
soil  that  never  saw  the  light  before ;  and  that  the  ori- 
ginal top-soil  will  be  buried  at  too  great  a  depth.  It 
would  seem  to  be  a  safer  course  to  lower  the  furrow 
one  inch  a  year  till  the  requisite  depth  were  reached. 
In  this  case,  the  change  would  be  less  violent;  the 
upper  and  lower  soils  would  be  perfectly  mixed,  and 
the  whole  would  be  thoroughly  pulverized. 

420.  Nothing  is  better  established  than  the  benefit 
of  mixing  unlike  soils ;  as  peaty  with  sandy  or  with 
clayey  soils ;  or  swamp  muck  with  any  soil  essentially 


220  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

unlike  it.  Now,  wherever  the  subsoil  is  different 
from  the  surface,  this  gradual  deepening  of  the  fur- 
row enables  us  to  mix  soils  without  the  labor  of  trans- 
portation. The  farmer  should  carefully  mark  the 
effect.  If  good,  he  should  continue  the  practice.  If 
bad,  he  should  investigate  the  cause.  It  might  be 
owing  to  protoxide  of  iron  in  the  subsoil.  Should  the 
subsoil  be  of  a  sickly  yellow,  when  first  turned  up, 
but  afterwards  turn  to  a  reddish  brown,  he  might  con- 
clude that  such  is  the  case ;  and  he  might  then  add  to 
the  soil  a  little  lime,  or  a  compost  containing  it,  and 
continue  the  process  of  deepening  his  soil ;  or  should 
he  deepen  his  furrows  very  gradually,  this  protoxide 
of  iron  would  cease  to  be  hurtful,  merely  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  v 

421.  A  deeply  cultivated  soil — one  properly  amend- 
ed, if  not  originally  good  and  well  manured,"*  is  a  lab- 
oratory in  operation — at  work  for  the  owner's  benefit. 
By  means  of  the  silica  and  alumina,  its  chief  ingre- 
dients, it  affords  a  safe  anchorage  for  his  plants ;  its 
salts  and  organic  matter  supply  them  food ;  and  more 
than  this,  it  is  at  work^  drawing  other  food  from  above 
and  below.  The  subsoil  sends  up  its  treasures,  and 
the  playful  breezes  pay  it  their  contributions  as  they 
pass. 

422.  Such  a  soil,  one  perfected  by  diligence  and 
skill,  is  in  alliance  with  the  silent  and  often  unob- 
served but  mighty  powers  of  nature,  for  the  farmer's 
good.  It  gathers  from  above  and  below  for  his  bene- 
fit.    It  subsidizes  the  powers  of  nature  in  his  behalf 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  221 

It  is  thus  that  the  God  of  nature  rewards  diligence 
and  skill ;  thus  that  He  verifies  his  own  truth,  that 
"  the  hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich;" 

423.  Another  item  on  which  I  will  touch  briefly,  is 
that  of  haying.  It  is  important  that  grass  be  cut  be- 
fore the  seed  is  ripe  enough  to  shell  out,  while  the 
stalk  is  yet  tender  and  juicy,  and  before  it  has 
changed  into  a  tough,  dry,  woody  fibre.  Neverthe- 
less, there  are  other  things  on  a  farm  quite  as  impor- 
tant. The  hilling  of  corn,  before  the  roots  fill  the 
whole  ground,  is  at  least  as  important.  Indeed,  it  must 
he  done  then,  or  never.  The  harvesting  of  wheat,  rye, 
and  oats,  five  or  six  days  before  the  seed  is  fully  ripe, 
is  more  important ;  for  the  grain  is  far  better,  and  the 
straw  is  then  valuable  as  a  fodder,  but  is  worth  almost 
nothing,  except  for  manure,  if  these  crops  are  left  to 
become  fully  ripe.  Let  the  hay  be  cut  earlier  or  later 
in  July,  according  to  its  forwardness,  if  this  can  be 
done  conveniently;  but  it  is  not  so  important  that 
men  should  kill  themselves  with  over-work  to  accom- 
plish it,  nor  that  the  more  important  matters  of  hoe- 
ing and  summer  harvest  should  be  deferred.  Early 
cutting  gives  better  hay  ;  late  cutting  gives  more ;  the 
medium  time  is  on  the  whole  the  best ;  but  the  dam- 
age is  not  as  great  as  many  have  estimated,  if  grass 
stands  till  into  August. 

424.  I  will  now  suppose  that  our  farmer  has  done 
his  haying  and  harvesting  of  summer  crops  ;  that  be- 
fore haying  he  made  the  necessary  repairs  on  his  barn 
and  sheds ;  and  that  since  haying  he  has  made  such 


222  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

repairs  on  his  house  as  he  deems  wise  to  make  this 
year.  He  is  now  casting  about,  conscious  that  he  has 
not  the  means  of  doing  everything  at  once,  and  yet 
desirous  of  doing  somethiag  every  year  for  the  per- 
manent improvement  of  his  farm.  We  suppose  he 
has  not  made  a  fortune  in  the  city  to  expend  in  fancy 
farming,  and  has  no  rich  father-in-law  to  back  him  up 
if  he  gets  into  difficulty.  The  best  he  can  do  will  be, 
to  do  one  thing  at  a  time.  He  would  like  to  attack 
that  ten-acre  lot  of  boulders  (428).  But  that  would 
not  help  him  to  the  means  for  enlarging  his  manure- 
heaps  for  another  year.  He  therefore  concludes,  we 
will  suppose,  to  commence  operations  on  the  five-acre 
swamp  (429).  He  finds  it  surrounded  with  up-land 
except  at  one  end,  where  by  digging  a  ditch  three  feet 
deep,  for  60  or  70  rods,  the  water  might  be  conveyed 
away.  We  will  suppose  the  swamp  to  be  of  an  oval 
form,  with  an  outlet  at  the  southern  extremity. 

425.  Let  him  go  down  the  outlet  to  a  point  where 
the  ditch  may  be  commenced,  having  its  bottom  at 
least  four  feet  below  the  general  level  of  the  bog.  If 
more  fall  could  be  obtained,  it  would  be  better.  I 
suppose  this  bog  to  be  afflicted  with  so  mucb  water, 
that  it  would  not  do  to  trust  to  a  covered  drain.  He 
decides  upon  an  open  drain  through  the  centre,  three 
feet  deep  and  three  w4de.  If  possible,  let  this  drain 
be  straight.  Supposing  the  whole  length  to  be  6Q  rods, 
the  cubic  feet  of  mud  to  be  thrown  up  would  be  9,801, 
making  about  200  loads  of  fifty  feet  each. 

426.  This  should  be  done  by  the  job.     First  let  a 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.         223 

trial  be  made.  Let  it  be  ascertained  bow  difficult  tbe 
work  is  ;  wbat  obstacles  interfere  ;  bow  far  tbe  work 
will  be  unbealtby,  &c.  Then  let  him,  if  possible,  give 
it  out  by  tbe  job.  There  is  not  a  man  in  the  world 
who  cannot  do  a  difficult  piece  of  work  more  easily 
by  the  job  than  by  the  day.  Where  work  can  be  put 
out  in  this  way,  it  is  better  for  both  parties. 

427.  What  shall  be  done  with  this  mud  ?  In  order 
to  be  washed  of  its  sourness  and  sweetened  by  sun 
and  air,  it  needs  to  lie  where  it  is  at  least  one  year.  If 
the  owner  can  provide  himself  with  other  matter  for 
composting  in  the  intervening  time,  it  is  best  to  let  it 
lie  more  than  a  year.  For  twenty  years  or  more  it 
will  improve.  But  he  wishes  to  clear  his  swamp,  and 
be  ready  to  put  in  side-drains ;  to  have  the  water  ta- 
ken from  every  part,  and  the  whole  turned  over  witb 
the  plough,  and  sown  with  grass-seed.  Probably, 
therefore,  he  will  think  best  to  remove  this  mud  as 
soon  as  it  becomes  dry  enough,  and  the  ground  be- 
comes sufficiently  hard  for  the  feet  of  his  cattle.  It 
may  be  that  this  one  ditch  will  take  the  water  from 
the  whole  swamp.  If  not,  which  is  far  the  more  prob- 
able, then  side-ditches  should  be  tjut  running  into 
this.  If  the  nature  of  the  ground  admits,  these  should 
enter  the  central  ditch  at  right  angles.  If  a  greater 
fall  can  be  obtained  by  running  them  a  little  down- 
wards, towards  the  outlet,  then  give  them  this  direc- 
tion. But  let  them,  if  possible,  be  parallel  with  each 
other,  and  at  about  equal  distances.  These  should  by 
all  means  be  covered  drains ;  should  be  from  two  to 
three  feet  deep ;  and  if  there  is  likely  to  be  a  large 


324         PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

amount  of  water  to  carry  off,  they  should  be  within 
two  or  three  rods  of  each  other. 

428.  There  will  be  considerable  expense  attending 
all  this.  But  let  it  be  remembered  that  five  acres  of 
the  best  land  are  to  be  made  out  of  what  was  before 
an  eye-sore.  If  this  land  can  be  made  to  produce 
two  tons  of  good  hay  to  the  acre,  annually,  without 
much  expense  for  manure,  the  owner  can  afford  to 
lay  out  something  upon  it.  How  shall  the  side -drains 
be  made  ?  Suppose  them  to  be  cut  two  feet  wide  at 
the  top,  and  the  walls  to  slope  inward,  coming  to- 
gether at  three  feet  in  depth,  in  the  form  of  the  letter 
y  ;  1st.  They  may  be  filled  with  brush  about  two  feet 
from  the  bottom,  the  brush  be  covered  with  turf,  bot- 
tom upwards,  and  then  the  turf  covered  .deeply  with 
the  mud  thrown  from  the  ditch ;  or,  2nd.  They  may 
be  filled  up  about  one  foot  with  small  pebbles,  or  bro- 
ken stones,  covered  as  before  with  turf  inverted,  and 
filled  to  the  surface  with  the  mud  thrown  out ;  or,  3rd. 
Tiles  may  be  used. 

429.  Brush-drains  have  sometimes  answered  a  good 
purpose,  and  have  lasted  many  years.  The  coldness 
of  the  ground  at  such  a  depth  prevents  their  decay. 
I  do  not  believe,  however,  that  the  brush-drain  is  to 
be  recommended.  If  the  stone-drain  is  to  be  adopted, 
the  stones  should  be  very  small,  not  much  larger  than 
hens'  eggs,  as  otherwise  the  mice  will  work  among 
them  and  fill  them  up.  The  amount  of  stone  required 
for  such  a  drain  is  large  ;  the  labor  of  collecting  them 
is  considerable ;  and,  unless  it  be  regarded  as  import- 


PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE.  226 

ant  to  clear  the  adjoining  grounds  of  pebbles,  it  could 
hardly  be  good  economy  to  construct  the  stone-drain. 
The  best  of  tiles,  sufficiently  large  for  these  side-drains, 
can  be  purchased  for  a  fraction  over  one  cent  a  foot. 
If  the  ground  is  soft  at  the  time  of  laying  them,  a 
piece  of  board  should  be  imbedded  for  the  ends  to 
rest  upon  where  they  come  together.  They  cannot 
fail,  when  properly  laid,  to  carry  off  the  water  ;  and 
if  made  of  suitable  clay,  and  thoroughly  baked,  they 
will  last  half  a  century,  and  even  more. 

430.  Many  lands,  not  considered  swampy,  would  be 
greatly  benefited  by  draining.  This  has  been  fully 
established  by  the  experience  of  European  agricultu- 
rists. Lands  there,  which  a  few  years  ago  were  not 
suspected  of  being  troubled  with  water  in  the  subsoil, 
have  been  drained;  and  their  productiveness  has  been 
vastly  increased.  Probably  there  are  great  extents  of 
land  in  our  country,  which  are  cold  and  sour,  by  rea- 
son of  water  in  the  subsoil,  and  which  will  ere  long  be 
rendered  warm,  light,  easy  to  cultivate,  and  highly 
productive,  by  thorough- draining, 

RECLAIMING  STONY  LAND. 

431.  Another  season,  when  the  ordinary  business  of 
crop  growing  ceases  to  press,  our  farmer  may  attack 
that  ten-acre  slope  before  spoken  of  (428).  It  is  now 
covered  with  boulders,  and  is  comparatively  valueless. 
A  wall  is  wanted  along  the  foot  of  the  slope,  next  to 
the  highway.  It  is  a  heavy  work*to  reclaim  these  ten 
acres,  but  considering  their  position,  near  the  barn,  it 

10* 


226  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

may  be  made  a  profitable  work.  Let  him  have  all 
things  in  readiness,  iron-bars,  a  good  strong  stone  boat, 
and  an  able  pair  of  cattle.  This  will  be  a  sufficient 
team,  if  not  more  than  3  or  4  men  are  to  be  employed, 
as  nearly  every  stone,  if  the^business  be  rightly  man- 
aged, will  be  drawn  directly  down  hill ;  and  the  team 
work  will  be  an  entirely  different  thing  from  what  it 
would  if  the  wall  were  to  be  at  the  upper  edge  of  the 
slope.  Two  men  to  lay  the  wall,  one  to  go  with  the 
team,  and  two  to  dig  the  stones  and  load  them  on  the 
boat,  would  be  perhaps  the  best  force  to  employ. 

432.  Let  the  size  and  height  of  the  wall  be  calcu- 
lated according  to  the  quantity  of  stone  to  be  disposed 
of.  If  it  were  to  be  5  feet  above  ground,  from  1  to  2 
below,  according  to  the  shape  of  the  surface,  4  feet 
thick  at  the  bottom  and  2  at  the  top,  the  force  I  have 
described  might  put  up  just  about  three  rods  in  a  day, 
and  at  this  rate  the  cost  would  not  vary  much  from 
two  dollars  a  rod. 


PROFITS  OF  AMENDING  LANDS. 

433.  It  should  be  considered  that  lands  of  this  de- 
scription, having  a  favorable  slope,  are  generally  bet- 
ter, when  cleared  of  stones,  than  those  which  are  natu- 
rally feasible.  There  are  thousands  of  acres  in  the 
Eastern  States,  which  can  thus  be  made  first-rate  land, 
at  a  cost,  considering  their  nearness  to  market,  less 
than  their  prospective  value  ;  and  it  is  a  singular  fact, 
but  one,  I  believe,  which  cannot  be  disputed,  that  the 
farmers  in  these  States,  of  just  such  lands  as  I  have 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.         227 

now  described,  and  worse  even,  lands  in  many  cases 
so  stony,  that  instead  of  a  wall  on  one  side  only,  you 
would  have  to  build  a  heavy  wall  around  every  5  acres, 
to  swallow  up  the  stones,  are  this  moment  richer,  and 
more  intelligent,  and  are  educating  their  families  bet- 
ter, than  those  on  opr  very  best  river  lands.  The 
truth  is,  these  granite  lands,  when  once  reclaimed, 
fairly  walled  about,  and  thus  cleared  of  stones,  possess 
great  capabilities.  I  know  not  but  the  prospects  of 
the  young  man  who  commences  on  such  lands,  con- 
sidering their  healthfulness  and  their  proximity  to 
market,  are  as  flattering  as  those  of  one  who  com- 
mences on  the  richest  prairies. 

MIXING  SOILS. 

434.  On  another  part  of  the  farm,  to  which  I  have 
directed  attention,  is  supposed  to  be  a  bed  of  nearly 
pure  clay,  and  near  by  it?  a  sandy  loam.  This  is  no 
uncommon  occurrence.  Now  the  sandy  loam  has  a 
little  fine  clayey  matter  in  it,  almost  enough  to  make  a 
very  profitable  soil  to  cultivate,  but  not  quite;  for 
although  it  is  easy  to  work,  yet,  for  the  want  of  larger 
crops,  it  does  not  give  a  satisfactory  profit.  Now  the 
probability  is,  that  if  our  farmer  can  find  a  time  either 
by  carting  or  sledding  when  he  can  draw  15  or  20 
loads  to  the  acre  of  the  clay,  and  put  it  upon  this 
sandy  loam,  he  will  not  receive  his  pay  as  promptly  as 
would  the  man  who  should  work  for  him  by  the  day, 
but  in  the  end  he  will  receive,  in  the  increase  of  his 
crops  and  in  the  increased  value  of  his  land,  far  higher 
wages     I  find  almost  everywhere,  that  the  men  who 


228  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

have  made  hard  farms  good  ones,  are  rich.  I  do  not 
find  that  tliey  were  born  rich,  nor  that  they  have  mar- 
ried rich  wives^  but  some  how  or  other,  they  have  grown 
rich  ;  and  I  know  not  how  to  account  for  it,  but  on  the 
supposition  that  this  making  good  land  out  of  poor, 
and  then  raising  crops  on  it,  is  a  pretty  well-paid  busi- 
ness. I  think  it  is  so — that  the  man  who  snakes  a  poor 
farm  better^  is  better  paid  for  his  trouble  than  the  one  who 
makes  a  good  farm  poorer.  His  satisfaction,  if  he  ever 
reflects  on  his  doings,  must  certainly  be  greater. 

435.  On  another  part  of  this  farm  was  supposed  to 
be  a  heavy  clay  soil,  too  refractory  to  work  with  re- 
munerating results  ;  and,  side  by  side,  as  not  unfre- 
quently  happens,  a  light  sandy  loam,  unequal  to  the 
trust  of  retaining  the  manures  committed  to  it.  Now, 
if  the  owner  should  be  tempted  to  go  with  his  team 
and  work  for  other  people,  at  $2  a  day,  it  may  be 
wise ;  he  may  need  the  ready  pay — we  suppose  he 
knows  his  own  business  ; — but  let  him  remember  that 
a  day's  work  with  his  team,  in  carrying  back  and  forth, 
from  one  of  these  soils  to  the  other,  would  be  likely 
to  bring  him  much  more  than  $2  a  day  in  the  end. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

436.  The  prevailing  system  of  rotation  in  England 
is  what  is  called  the  Norfolk  system.  It  is  a  foui 
years'  course — turnips,  barley,  clover,  wheat,  and  then 
the  same  over.  This  is  adapted  to  light  soils — those 
called  barley rsoils.  It  is  considered  that  the  turnip, 
crop,  eaten  off  by  sheep,  prepares  t|ie  ground  for  bar. 


rRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE.  SSft- 

ley.  The  clover,  bein^  sown  with  the  barley,  fills  the 
ground  with  its  roots,  and  thus  prepares  it  for  wheat. 
For  heavier  clayey  soils,  a  six  years'  rotation  is  there 
preferred,  in  which  wheat,  oats,  and  beans,  are  made 
to  occur  as  often  as  possible. 

437.  In  this  country,  our  climate  is  different.  Un- 
der our  scorching  suns,  turnips  can  never  be  grown  as 
advantageously  as  in  the  humid  atmosphere  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  here,  Indian  corn,  which  cannot  be  grown 
there,  will  always  be  an  important  crop.  English 
usage  therefore  throws  little  light  on  our  course.  That 
the  principle  of  rotation  in  crops  ought  to  be  adopted, 
there  can  be  no  doubt ;  but,  as  yet,  no  very  specific 
rules  have  been  laid  down,  or,  if  laid  down,  they  have 
not,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  been  confirmed  by  practice. 
The  composition  of  plants,  so  far  as  their  inorganic 
elements  are  considered,  is  various.  Some,  it  will  be 
seen  (Table  Y.),  require  a  large  amount  of  certain  in- 
gredients, while  others  require  little  of  these,  but 
draw  largely  upon  other  ingredients.  We  have,  then, 
as  a  general  rule,  i/)  let  those  which  are  unlike  in  their 
requirements  follow  each  other, 

438.  There  are  other  topics  on  which  I  would  gladly 
dwell.  I  would  gladly  recall  some  on  which  1  have 
spoken,  with  a  view  to  repeat  and  enlarge,  and  to 
urge  them  on  the  consideration  of  practical  farmers. 
But  the  limits  I  have  assigned  to  myself  are  already 
more  than  reached.  I  cannot,  however,  close  this 
little  work  without  a  few  suggestions  to  that  class  of 
men,  whom,  if  any,  it  is  adapted  to  benefit.     I  have 


230  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

spoken  of  farming ;    let  me   speak   a  few  words   to 
farmers. 

TO  FARMERS. 

439.  Yours  is  a  nolle  ]jafofession.  I  will  not  be  de- 
terred from  saying  this,  because  so  many  have  said  it 
who  were  incapable  of  any  just  appreciation  of  what 
they  were  saying.  Many  have  written  and  uttered  it, 
who  were  much  more  willing  that  others  should  be 
farmers,  than  to  be  farmers  themselves.  It  is  true 
nevertheless.     Yours  is  a  noble  profession. 

The  merchant^  who  brings  manufactured  goods  to 
our  door,  and  sells  them  at  a  reasonable  profit,  and 
thereby  lives  and  enables  us  to  live  better  than  we  could 
if  we  had  to  go  all  the  way  to  the  manufacturer  for  a 
gimlet,  a  plough,  or  a  piece  of  calico,  is  doing  well  for 
the  community.  His  is  an  honorable  profession,  and 
we  are  bound  to  honor  him,  so  long  as  he  pursues  it 
honorably. 

The  manufacturer^  who  converts  the  raw  material 
into  the  necessaries,  comforts,  and  ornaments  of  life, 
and  then  passes  them  over  to  the  merchant,  to  be  dis- 
tributed to  all  who  want,  is  also  doing  a  good  work. 
We  must  honor  him  too,  so  long  as  he  produces  a  good 
article,  at  a  fair  price.  If,  by  a  life  of  restless  enter- 
prise, he  becomes  rich,  we  will  not  envy  him. 

The  farmer^  who  produces  the  raw  material,  and 
passes  it  on  to  the  manufacturer,  and  through  him  to 
the  merchant,  and  thence  to  the  supply  of  all  terrestrial 
wants,  is  at  the  foundation  of  the  whole  structure  of 
human  society.  What  a  pity  it  would  be,  if  some 
coxcomb,   high   up   the  grades   of  life,  as  he  may 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  281 

vainly  conceive,  should  look  down  and  scorn  tlie 
foundation ! 

I  can  hardly  forgive  the  man  or  woman  who  speaks 
slightly  of  the  intelligence,  the  worth,  or  the  social 
importance  of  farmers.  The  farmer  ignorant  ?  It  is 
impossible  I  He  lives  amid  the  communions  of  nature. 
The  common  mother  of  us  all  teaches  him  daily.  The 
heavens  always  shine  on  him.  How  different  with 
those,  who,  when^they  look  around,  see  nothing  but 
paving-stones,  dry -goods,  and  hardware ;  and  who, 
when  they  look  up,  see  no  heavens,  unless  they  can 
see  through  brick  and  mortar !  The  works  of  man 
fill  all  their  thought.  What  wonder  if  they  fail  to  wor- 
ship a  higher  God  than  Mammon  !  The  farmer  com- 
munes ever  with  the  works  of  the  Almighty.  What 
should  hinder  him  from  being  a  reverent  learner  ?  He 
lives  amid  revelations.  He  cannot  be  ignorant,  if  he 
would.  Away,  away,  ye  profane  ones,  who  speak 
flippantly  of  the  farmer  and  his  calling. 

Nevertheless,  it  must  be  confessed,  that  farmers 
are  not  always  as  eager  for  the  knowledge  pertaining 
to  their  profession  as  would  be  desirable.  They  are 
not  destitute  of  important  knowledge  ;  they  cannot 
be ;  it  is  impossible.  But  their  communion  with  the 
broad  folio  of  nature,  renders  their  habits  of  thought 
unfavorable,  and  sometimes  averse  even,  to  another 
kind  of  study,  which,  after  all,  they  really  need,  in 
order  to  the  highest  success  in  their  calling.  The 
clergyman,  the  doctor,  the  lawyer,  need  books  on  their 
profession ,^nd  so  does  the  farmer  on  his.  I  grant 
that  he  can  learn  a  greater  proportion  of  his  duties 
without  books  than  they,  but  not  the  whole.     Tht 


232  PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE. 

farmer  needs  books.  It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
for  him  to  reach  the  top  of  his  profession  without 
them. 

I  have  seen  with  what  eagerness  the  merchant  runs 
over  the  prices  current,  and  with  what  prying  curiosity 
the  manufacturer  seeks  out  and  appropriates  the  latest 
improvement  in  his  line.  I  wish  I  could  see  the  far- 
mer as  eager  for  the  best  agricultural  paper,  as  the 
merchant  is  for  the  best  journal  of  commerce,  or  the 
manufacturer  for  the  best  practical  machinist.  If  the 
minister,  the  lawyer,  and  the  doctor,  insist  upon  great 
libraries  of  their  professions,  I  wish  the  farmer  would 
as  resolutely  insist  upon  a  small  one  of  .his.  Then 
would  knowledge  be  increased;  what  one  farmer 
knows  all  would  know  ;  and  it  would  be  a  prodigious 
amount.  It  would  be  a  kind  of  knowledge  that  is 
practically  useful,  beneficial,  not  to  a  few,  but  to  the 
whole  world. 


iM 


CATECHISM 


OF 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  PRACTICAL   AGEICULTUEE. 


( Questions  to  be  answered  as  below,  or  from  the  sections 
referred  to.) 

What  is  the  science  of  agriculture  ?  It  is  the  Tcnowledge  of 
farming. 

What  is  practical  agriculture  ?     It  is  the  practice  of  farming. 

What  is  the  difference  ?  The  first  is  something  to  he  learned; 
the  second  something  to  he  done. 

Can  the  kaiming  be  in  all  cases  separated  from  the  practice  f  It 
cannot. 

If  you  were  told  to  feed  a  horse,  could  you  Jearn  perfectly  how 
to  feed  him  without  first  putting  your  knowledge  into  practice  ? 
I  think  I  could. 

Let  us  see:  1st.  You  would  need  to  know  what  food  a  horse 
.requires;  2d.  In  what  form  he  requires  it,  whether  long  or 
chopped,  ground  or  whole,  raw  or  cooked;  3d.  How  often  he 
should  be  fed;  4th.  How  much  at  a  time;-  and  5th.  You  would 
want  to  he  quick  to  judge  hy  his  appearance  and  action,  whether 
you  were  feeding  him  in  the  hest  manner.  Could  you  learn  aC 
these  things  without  some  practice  ?    All  but  the  last. 

If  you  were  told  to  mow  a  piece  of  meadow,  could  you  first 
learn  how  to  mow,  and  then  afterwards  mow  it  ?  In  this  case  I 
should  have  to  unite  the  learning  with  the  practice. 

Is  it  not  so  with  most  things  to  be  done  on  a  farm  ?    It  is. 

What  two  things  then  are  essential  to  an  accomplished  farmer? 
That  he  should  know  everything  that  is  to  be  done  on  a  farm,  and 
he  ahle  to  do  it  expertly. 

What  would  the  first  be  called  ?  Knowledge,  or  science.  What 
the  second?    Skill. 

Which  of  these  is  important  to  the  hands  on  a  farm  ?    The  last. 

Which  to  the  man  who  manages  the  farm  ?    Both. 

What  does  farming  imply?    Three  things:   1st.  The  growing 


234  CATECHISM   OF 

of  crops;  2d.  The  disposal  of  the  crops;  and  3d.  The  disposal  d( 
those  things  whick  are  produced  by  the  crops. 

How  niany  thiugs  are  to  be  considered  in  the  growing  of 
crops  ?  Four :  the  preparation  of  the  ground ;  the  putting  in  of 
the  seed ;  the  care  of  the  plants  till  matured ;  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  crop  till  disposed  of. 

How  are  crops  to  be  disposed  of?  Partly  by  sale ;  partly  as 
food  for  the  farmer's  family,  but  principally  as  fodder  for  his  ani- 
mals. 

Why  are  crops  to  be  consumed  mainly  on  the  farm  ?  That 
their  ingredients  may  be  returned  to  the  soil,  to  be  transformed 
into  future  crops. 

What  are  those  secondary  products  of  crops  before  spoken  of? 
Beef,  pork,  mutton,  fowls,  butter,  cheese,  and  eggs. 

How  are  these  products  disposed  of?  Partly  as  food  for  the 
family ;  partly  in  barter  for  necessaries  and  luxuries  not  produced 
on  the  farm ;  and  partly  by  sale,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  money. 

Does  the  farmer  raise  all  the  animals  that  eat  his  produce,  and 
no  more  ?  That  would  be  impossible ;  for  he  does  not  know  be- 
forehand how  much  produce  he  will  have;  and  therefore  he 
could  not  know  how  many  to  raise. 

If  he  should  raise  too  many,  what  would  he  do  ?  He  would 
either  sell  some  of  his  animals  or  buy  produce. 

If  he  should  raise  too  few  ?  He  would  either  sell  some  of  his 
produce  or  buy  other  animals. 

Buying  and  seUing  then  is  an  important  part  of  the  farmer's 
business ;  whom  is  he  like  in  this  respect  ?    The  merchant. 

What  kind  of  knowledge  does  he  need  to  discharge  this  part 
of  his  duties  well  ?  What  would  be  called  mercantile  knowledge 
— a  knowledge  of  the  prices  current,  of  the  present  state  of  the 
market,  and  of  the  probable  changes. 

When  the  farmer  manages  to  turn  his  soils  and  manures  into 
crops,  and  these  again  into  beef,  pork,  butter,  and  cheese,  whom 
is  he  like  ?     The  manufacturer. 

What  kind  of  knowledge  will  best  enable  him  to  perform  this 
part  of  his  business  ?  A  knowledge  of  soils,  plants,  animals,  and 
manures. 

When  the  farmer  has  buildings  to  erect,  fences  to  make,  some 
implements  to  manufacture,  and  others  to  repair,  whom  is  he 
hke?    The  mechanic. 

If  then  the  farmer  is  to  be  a  sort  of  a  merchant,  a  manufac- 
turer to  some  extent,  and  mechanic  enough  to  be  able  to  employ 
the  carpenter  and  the  blacksmith  advantageously,  does  not  his 
profession  require  great  and  varied  knowledge  ?     It  does. 

If  a  profession  is  to  be  estimated  by  the  amount  of  knowledge 
required  to  prosecute  it  in  the  best  manner,  what  profession  is 
more  honorable  than  the  farmer's  ?    None. 

In  farming,  as  in  other  things,  there  is  a  best  way,  and  there  are 


SCIENTIFIC   AND   PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.     235 

inferior  ivoys  of  doing  the  same  thing,  and  the  profit  often  de- 
pends upon  taking  the  right  course :  how  would  you  ascertain  the 
best  way  of  doing  something,  as,  for  instance,  to  raise  a  ton  of 
carrots?  There  are  three  ways  in  which  I  might  learn  it:  1st. 
By  experiment;  2d.  I  might  be  told  it  by  some  one  who  knew; 
3(i.  I  might  learn  it  from  hooks.  The  first  would  be  a  slow  pro- 
cess ;  for  I  might  have  to  experiment  ten  years  before  I  should 
hit  upon  the  best  cc  arse.  The  second  and  third  would  be  very 
much  alike ;  in  either  case  I  should  get  this  piece  of  knowledge 
from  another  person,  and  it  would  be  of  little  consequence  whe- 
ther he  communicated  it  through  the  ear  or  the  eye. 

What  peculiar  advantage  have  books?  This,  that  while  we 
cannot  command  the  services  of  a  living  teacher  at  all  times,  we 
can  always  command  the  assistance  of  books ;  and  they  can  teach 
us  at  odd  spells,  as  on  rainy  days  or  winter  evenings. 

How  is  the  farmer  to  gain  that  extensive  and  varied  know- 
ledge which  we  have  seen  that  his  business  requires  ?  In  the 
first  place,  he  should  be  educated  for  his  profession  when  young, 
as  other  young  men  are  for  theirs ;  and  in  the  second  place,  he 
should  pursue  his  inquiries  through  life — should  be  a  thinhing^ 
and,  to  some  extent,  a  reading  farmer. 

For  explaining  the  reasons  of  things  that  are  always  occurring 
in  life,  and  especially  on  a  farm,  what  science  is  most  important  ? 
Chemistry. 

.  To  what  extent  should  a  farmer  undertake  to  learn  chemistry  ? 
So  far  only  as  to  enable  him  to  understand  those  explanations 
which  chemists  are  making  for  his  special  benefit. 

What  other  science  throws  considerable  hght  on  the  farmer's 
path  ?     Geology. 

To  what  other  subjects  should  he  give  particular  attention  ?  To 
the  natural  history  of  plants ;  the  nature,  habits,  instincts,  wants, 
and  capabilities  of  domestic  animals ;  the  use  of  manures ;  and 
the  constitution  of  soils. 

In  application  to  what  should  he  study  all  these  things  ?  To 
Practical  Agriculture. 


CHEMISTRY. 

What  is  an  element?  1.  A  Unary  compound?  2.  A  ternary 
compound  ?  3.     A  quaternary  compound  ?  3. 

What  then  does  binary  mean  ?  3.  Ternary  ?  3.  Quaterna- 
ry? 3. 

Give  an  example  of  an  element?  4.  Of  a  binary  compound? 
4.    Of  a  ternary  compound  ?  4.    Of  a  quaternary  compound  ?  4. 

In  how  many  forms  does  matter  exist?  5.  Give  an  example 
oi^^gas?  5.    Of  &  liquid?  5.    Of  &  solid?.  6. 

Do  any  bodies  change  their  form  ?  6.     In  what  circumstances 


236.  CATECHISM   OF 

does  water  take  the  gaseous  form  ?  In  wha  1;,  the  Hquid  ?  6.  In 
what,  the  solid  ?  6. 

What  is  chemical  affinity'?  7.  Of  how  many  kinds  is  it?  7. 
What  is  simple  affinity  ?  7.  Single  elective  f  7.  Double  elec- 
tive f  7. 

How  is  a  compound  to  be  distinguished  from  a  mixture  P  8. 

What  bodies  are  said  to  be  soluble  f  9.  What  insoluble  ?  9. 
What  is  a  liquid  that  will  dissolve  a  body  called  ?  9.  What  is  a 
solution  f  9.    What  is  the  great  solvent  in  nature  ?  9. 

Are  there  degrees  of  solubility  f  10.  How  much  quick-lime 
will  water  dissolve  ?  10.  How  much  gypsum  ?  10.  How  much 
common  salt?  10. 

What  is  a  general  law  of  combination?  11.    Explain  this?  11. 

What  is  another  law  of  combination?  12.  W^ll  you  explain 
this?  12. 

How  many  elements  are  known  ?  About  60.  How  many  of 
these  constitute  essentially  all  objects  with  which  we  are  conver- 
sant? 13.    Will  you  give  the  names  of  those  15?  14. 

What  is  Oxygen?  15.  What  portion  of  air  does  it  constitute? 
15.    Of  water?  15.    Of  all  known  matter  ?  15. 

What  is  Chlorine?  16.  In  what  form  might ^ it  be  supplied  to 
soil?  16.    For  what  crops ?  16. 

What  is  Sulphur?  17.    What  more  can  you  say  of  it?  17. 

W^hat  is  Phosphorus?  18.  What  is  it  apart  of?  18.  How  dif- 
fused? 18. 

What  is  car6on  .^  19.    Of  what  does  it  form  a  part  ?  19. 

What  is  silicon  ?  20.  What  part  of  the  solid  globe  does  it  prob- 
ably form  ?  20.  What  is  it  in  its  pure  state  ?  20.  When  com- 
bined with  oxygen  ?  20. 

What  is  nitrogen?  21.  What  part  is  it  of  the  air  ?  21.  What 
does  it  constitute  with  oxygen  ? 

What  is  hydrogen?  22.  How  light?  22.  What  part  of  water? 
22.    Will  it  burn  ?  22.    Does  it  cause  other  bodies  to  burn  ?  22. 

What  is  iron?  23.    What  is  said  of  it?  23. 

What  is  manganese  ?  24.    How  found,  and  where  ?  24. 

l^hdiXis  potassium?  25.    What  is  said  of  it  ?  25. 

What  is  sodium?  26.    What  is  said  of  this?  26. 

What  is  calcium  ?  27.    Why  are  limy  soils  called  calcareous  ?  27. 

What  is  magnesium  ?  28.    Of  what  is  it  the  basis  ?  28. 

What  is  aluminum?  29.     Of  what  is  this  the  basis?  29. 

Which  of  the  fifteen  elements  are  gases  when  uncombined? 
30.    What  of  the  other  eleven  ?  30. 

Which  are  metals  proper?  31.  Which  are  metals  of  alkalies? 
32.    '^hich.  o^ alkaline  earths?  32. 

Which  are  called  organic  elements  ?  33.    Why  ?  33. 

What  are  the  letters  written  after  the  names  of  substances 
called?  35.  What  is  their  use?  What  does  0  stand  for?  35. 
CI?  35.    K?  35.    Na?  35.    Fe?  35. 


SCIENTIFIC   AND   PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE.     237 

What  do  the  figures  after  the  symbols  show?  The  atomie 
weight.     See  36  and  37. 

What  is  the  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  ?  37.  Of  carbon  ?  37. 
Of  oxygen?  37.  Of  magn^^sium  ?  37.  ^  Of  sulphur?  37.  What  is 
the  lightest  of  all  bodies  ?  37  and  22. 

What  two  elements  combine  to  form  chloric  acid?  (See  Table 
I.)  What  is  the  symbol  for  oxygen  ?  What  for  chlorine  ?  What 
will  be  the  symbol  for  chloric  acid,  if  5  atoms  of  oxygen  combine 
with  1  of  chlorine  to  form  it? 

What  two  elements  combine  to  form  sulphuric  acid  ?  (See  Ta- 
ble I.)  How  many  atoms  of  oxygen  to  one  of  sulphur?  What 
then  shall  be  the  symbol  for  sulphuric  acid?  The, atomic  weight 
of  oxygen  being  8,  and  that  of  sulphur  being  16;  and  3  atoms  of 
oxygen  combining  with  1  of  sulphur  to  form  sulphuric  acid,  what 
will  be  the  atomic  weight  of  sulphuric  acid?  Ans.  16-|-3x8=40. 

How  are  the  compounds  of  oxygen  with  each  element  below  it 
in  Table  I.  placed?  37.  How  are  the  compounds  of  all  the  ele- 
ments below  oxygen  with  each  other  placed  '?  37.    ^ 

What  is  chloride  of  sodium  composed  of?  Sulphuret  of  iron? 
Sulphuret  of  hydrogen  ?  Light  carburet  of  hydrogen  ?  Heavy 
carburet  of  hydrogen?  Ammonia?  In  ammonia,  how  many 
atoms  of  hydrogen  to  1  of  nitrogen?  Why  is  NH^  the  symbol 
for  ammonia?    Why  is'  17  the  atomic  weight  of  ammonia? 

(These  symbols  show  what  each  compound  is  made  up  of  They 
are  not  designed  to  be  committed,  but  to  be  used  for  reference. 
The  reader,  for  instance,  might  wish  to  ascertain  what  carbonic 
acid  is.  If  he  turn  to  this  table,  he  will  see  carbonic  acid,  CO^  22. 
The  C  shows  one  atom  of  carbon,  6 ;  the  0",  two  atoms  of  oxy- 
gen 8-|-8  =  16;  and  so  of  all  the  other  compounds,  and  of  the 
salts  in  Table  II.  formed  from  these  compounds.) 

How  many  compounds  in  Table  I.  are  called  acids  ?  39.  How 
many  are  called  oxides  ?  39.  Why  are  the  oxides  called  also 
bases?  39.  Why  are- the  salts  formed  from  these  acids  and  bases 
called  oxygen  salts  ?  40.  How  does  the  name  of  these  salts 
always  end  ?  40.  Are  there  other  salts  ?  40.  If  carbonic  acid 
were  combined  with  soda,  what  would  be  the  name  of  the  salt 
thus  formed  ?  40.  If  the  soda  should  take  a  double  portion  of 
the  acid,  what  prefix  would  precede  its  name  ?  40.  What  other 
prefix  signifies  the  same  as  bi?  40. 

Can  you  distinguish  between  those  compounds  whose  name 
ends  in  uret,  and  the  salts  whose  names  end  in  ate  ?  41. 

What  is  a  protoxide  ?  42.  A  sesquioxide  ?  42.  A  perox- 
ide? 42. 

Wil),  you  tell  me  what  is  the  composition  of  sulphate  of  iron 
(copperas)?  43  and  Table  II.  Of  sulphate  of  soda  (Glauber's 
salt)?  43  and  Table  II.  When  water  exists  in  crystals,  what  is 
it  called  ?  43. 

What  is  the    -imposition  of  sulphate  of  lime  (plaster,  gypsum)? 


238  CATECHISM   OF 

44  and  Table  II.  How  much  water  is  contained  in  8()  lbs.  of 
plaster  ?  44.  If  this  be  heated  to  redness,  what  takes  place  ?  44. 
Could- you  now  look  into  Table  II.,  and  learn  precisely  how  an}'' 
of  these  salts  are  constituted  ? 

Will  you  give  some  account  of  chloric  acid  ?  45.  Of  sulphuric 
acid?  46.  Of  phosphoric  acid  ?  47.  Of  carbonic  acid  ?  48.  How 
is  carbonic  acid  constituted  ?  48  and  Table  I.  What  is  its  form  ? 
48.  What  its  weight  ?  48.  When  first  formed,  what  takes  place  ? 
48.  What  takes  place  soon  ?  48.  What  portion  of  the  air  on  an 
average  is  carbonic  acid  ?  48. 

Of  what  do  plants  consist  largely  ?  48.  Whence  do  they  ob- 
tain this  ?  48.  How  do  they  receive  it?  48.  What  of  the  vege- 
tation of  the  globe  ?  48. 

When  vegetable  matter  is  burnt,  what  becomes  of  its  carbon  ? 
48.     When  it  is  eaten  ?  48.     When  it  decays  ?  48. 

Lime-stone  is  carbonate  of  lime ;  what  proportion  of  it  is  car- 
bonic acid  ?  48.     What  proportion  oT  this  is  carbon  ?  Table  I. 

The  shells  of  fish  and  coral  rock  are  also  carbonate  of  lime; 
when  shells,  coral  and  lime-stone,  are  burnt  into  quick-lime,  what 
becomes  of  the  carbonic  acid  ?  48.     . 

What  is  said  of  volcanoes  ?  48.  Of  some  springs  ?  48.  Of  fis- 
sures in  the  earth  ?  48. 

What  is  said  of  the  exhaustion  and  re-supply  of  carbonic  acid 
in  the  air  ?  48. 

Is  carbonic  acid  poisonous  to  breathe  ?  48.  How  much  of  it 
is  there  in  pure  air  ?  48.     How  much  in  air  from  the  lungs?  48. 

Why  should  school-rooms  and  churches  be  often  ventilated  ? 
48. 

What  is  silicic  acid  ?  49.  By  what  other  name  is  it  more  com- 
monly called?  49.  How  is  it  composed?  49.  In  what  two 
states  does  it  exist  in  soils  ?  49.  What  part  does  silica  perform 
in  tht  growth  of  crops?  49.  What  is  said  of  oats  grown  on  peat, 
in  which  there  is  little  or  no  silica  ?  49.  How  much  of  it  do  we 
generally  find  in  soils?  49. 

Of  what  is  nitric  acid  composed  ?  50.  What  is  said  of  its 
salts?  50.     Of  old  plastering  ?  50.     Of  Chinese  gardeners  ?  50. 

What  is  muriatic  acid  composed  of?  51.  What  was  it  for- 
merly called?  51.  » 

What  is  the  composition  of  water  ?  52.  Give  an  account  of 
its  decomposition  and  its  recomposition  ?  52. 

Where  does  the  protoxide  of  iron  often  exist  abundantly  ?  53. 
Is  it  hurtful  to  plants  ?  53.  How  may  the  farmer  know  whether 
his  land  is  troubled  with  it  ?  53.  What  is  the  cure  ?  53.  How 
do  you  account  for  that  variegated  film  that  sometimes  appears 
on  water?  53.  May  lime  be  used  in  such  cases?  53.  If  ashes 
are  applied,  why  should  the  ground  be  first  drained  ?  53. 

How  is  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  composed  ?  54.  How  does  it 
differ  from  the  protoxide  ?  54.     What  are  those  scales  by  the 


SCIENTIFIC   AND   PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.     239 

blacksmith's  anvil  ?  54.     For  what  are  these  good  ?  54.     How 
are  they  to  be  applied  ?  54. 

What  gives  to  some  soils  their  red  color?  54.  To  others  their 
sickly  yellow?  54.     How  can  these  last  be  cured?  54. 

What  can  you  say  of  the  peroxide,  or  black  oxide  of  mtnga- 
nese?  55. 

How  is  potash  composed?  56.  What  is  said  of  its  caustic 
power?  56.  What  has  to  be  combined  with  potassium,  to  make 
it  potash?  56.  What  with  potash  to  make  it  carbonate  of 
potash  ?  56.  What  with  that  to  make  it  bicarbonate  ?  56.  In 
v/hat  form  is  it  applied  to  land  ?  56.  In  what  form  does  potash 
exist  in  ashes  ?  56.  How  much  carbonate  of  potash  is  there  in 
common  wood  ashes  ?  56.  How  much  soda  ?  56.  How  much 
lime?  56. 

Will  you  trace  sodium  through  its  combinations  up  to  carbo- 
nate of  soda  ?  57.    To  sulphate  of  soda  ?  57.    What  is  soda-ash  ?  57. 

Wliat  is  lime  ?  58.  What  is  water-slacked  lime  ?  How  much 
water  does  it  take  in  ?  58.  What  is  air-slacked  lime  ?  58.  Trace 
the  metal  calcium  through  its  combinations  ?  58.  What  does  it 
form  if  combined  with  carbonic  acid?  58.  With  sulphuric  acid? 
58.  With  silicic  acid  ?  58.  With  muriatic  acid  ?  58.  What  are 
those  substances  called  which  consolidate  water  in  themselves 
and  yet  appear  to  be  dry,  as  slacked  lime  ?  58. 

Magnesia  is  obtained  from  sea-water  and  from  a  species  of 
magnesian  lime-stone,  called  dollomite ;  it  exists  in  this  lime-stone 
and  in  sea- water,  as  carbonate  of  magnesia;  if  the  carbonic  acid 
is  driven  off.  what  does  it  become  ?  59. 

How  is  alumina  composed  ?  60.    Of  what  is  it  the  basis  ?  60.  ^ 
What  is  pure  clay?  60. 

What  is  chloride  of  sodium?  61.  Why  may  common  salt  be 
beneficial  to  corn,  potatoes,  and  turnips?  61. 

How  many  sulphurets  of  iron  are  there?  62.  What' is  the 
bisulphuret  sometimes  called  ?  62.     ,Why?  62. 

How  is  sulphuretted  hydrogen  composed  ?  63.  It  is  a  light, 
evanescent  gas;  where  may  it  often  be  detected  by  its  smell?  63, 
What  is  said  of  its  influence  on  health  ?  63.  On  the  growth  of 
plants?  63. 

What  is  the  name  of  that  gas  which  often  rises  in  bubbles  in 
stagnant  water  ?  64.  Of  that  which  is  used  for  purposes  of  light- 
ing? 64.     What  experiment  is  mentioned  in  64? 

What  is  the  composition  of  ammonia  ?  65.  How  is  its  odor 
recognized  ?  65.  Where  is  it  generated  ?  65.  If  left  to  its  own 
course,  what  does  it  become?  65.  Where  does  it  go?  65.  How 
is  it  brought  back  to  the  earth  ?  65.  Can  its  escape  be  arrested  ?  65. 

GEOLOGY^ 

What  is  the  form  of  the  earth  ?  66.     What  inference  from  this 


240  CATECHISM  OF 

with  regard  to  the  state  in  which  it  once  was  ?  66.  What  is  its 
average  weight?  66. 

How  many  square  miles  on  the  earth's  surface?  67.  How 
many  square  miles  of  land  ?  67.  How  many  of  water  ?  67.  What 
is  the  height  of  the  highest  land  ?  67.  The  depth  of  the  deepest 
water?  67.  The  probable  average  height  of  land?  67.  The 
average  depth  of  water  ?  67. 

(If  we  suppose  the  population  of  the  globe  to  be  1000  million, 
we  have  32  acres  to  each  person ;  if  the  population  should  double 
once  in  25  years,  there  would  be,  in  200  years,  4  persons  to  each 
acre.) 

What  is  said  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  ?  68.  With  what  is  it 
covered  ?  68.  What  is  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  to  the  square 
inch  of  the  earth's  surface  ?  68.  To  the  square  foot  ?  68.  Of 
the  whole  atmosphere  ?  68. 

What  is  the  difference  between  stratified  and  unstratified 
rocks  ?  69.  How  must  the  unstratified  rocks  have  been  formed  ? 
69.     What  are  they  called  ?  69. 

How  did  the  stratified  rocks  receive  their  present  form  ?  70. 
What  are  they  called?  70.  What  else  are  they  called,  and  why?  70. 

Which  rocks  are  the  older?  71.  Which  the  newer?  71.  Give 
the  illustration?  71. 

Could  the  igneous  and  the  aqueous  rocks  have  been  formed  at 
the  same  time ?  72.     Why  not?  72. 

What  classes  of  rocks  do  we  find  above  the  igneous  ?  73.  Give 
some  account  of  the  primary  rocks  ?  74.  Of  the  secondary  ?  75. 
Of  the  tertiary  ?  76. 

What  do  we  find  above  the  tertiary  rocks?  77.  What  is 
drift?  77.  Where  is  this  found?  77.  Whence  did  it  come?  77. 
From  how  far  ?  77. 

What  has  been  formed  above  the  drift  ?  78.  By  what  causes  ?  78. 

Which  of  the  formations  then  is  most  recent?  79.  Which 
next?  79.  Which  next?  79.  Which  next?  79.  Which  is  the 
lowest  of  the  stratified  rocks?  79.     On  what  do  these  rest?  79. 

Are  there  some  portions  of  igneous  rocks  above  and  among 
the  stratified  ?  80.     Whence  do  they  seem  to  have  come  ?  80. 

Have  we  reason  to  beheve  that  the  earth  was  created  in  the 
form  in  which  it  now  is?  81.  Is  there  reason  to  believe  that  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  earth's  crust  were  formed  at  periods  remote 
from  each  other  ?  82. 

From  what  are  all  soils  formed  ?  83.  Do  we  know  when  the 
drift  period  was  ?  83.     Describe  its  action  ?  83. 

What  of  the  loose  materials  on  the  earth's  surface  ?  84.  Do 
soils  come  from  the  underlaying  rock?  84.  Whence  do  they 
come?  84. 

How  many  simple  minerals  constitute  the  mass  of  known 
rocks?  85.  What  are  they?  85.  What  are  the  binary  compounds 
in  rocks  ?  86.  /         , 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.     24l 

Will  you  describe  quartz  ?  87.  Felspar  ?  Mica  ?  Hornblende  ? 
Carbonate  of  lime  ?  Talc?  Serpentine  ?  87.  What  part  of  the 
ponderable  matter  of  the  globe  is  oxygen  ?  89.  What  part  of 
its  crust  is  silica  ?  89.  What  is  silica  ?  Table  I.  How  much  of 
its  crust  is  alumina  ?  89.  What  is  said  of  potash,  or  potassa  ?  89. 
Of  soda,?  89.  Of  lime  and  magnesia  ?  89.  Of  iron  ?  89.  Of 
manganese?  89. 

What  does  Dr.  Dana  say  rocks  are?  90.  What  is  quartz?  91. 
Felspar  and  mica?  91.  Hornblende?  91.  Talc  and  serpentine  ? 
91.  What  are  silicates  ?  Table  II.  What  is  said  of  the  quantity 
of  silica  in  soils  ? 

Jp  which  rocks  is  there  more  silica?  92.  In  which  more 
magnesia,  alumina^and  Hme  ?  92.  Are  rocks  a  good  criterion  of 
soils?  92. 

How  do  soils  generally  produce  when  first  cultivated?  93. 
On  what  does  their  continuance  of  fertility  depend  ?  93. 

Describe  the  action  of  a  torrent  in  depositing  its  coarser  and 
finer  matter  ?  94.  Have  other  causes  done  the  like  on  a  larger 
scale  ?  94.     What  is  the  consequence  ?  94. 

Which  lands  should  we  cultivate  first?  95.  Is  it  probable  that 
poorer  lands  may  pSy  well  hereafter  ?  96. 

What  is  said  of  reclaiming  lands  ?  96.  By  what  should  farm- 
ers be  guided  ?  96.  Has  science  don'e'^any thing  for  other  em- 
ployments ?  96.  What  science  especially  deserves  the  farmer's 
attention  ?  97.     Why  ?  97. 

What  was  thrown  up  by  the  most  ancient  volcanoes  ?  98. • 
What  by  those  more  recent  ?  98.  What  by  the  most  recent  and 
by  those  now  in  operation  ?  98.  How  does  the  temperature  be- 
come as  we  descend  into  the  earth  ?  98.  At  what  rate  does  it 
become  warmer?  98.     What  do  we  infer  from  this?  98. 

At  40  or  50  miles  deep  what  might  we  expect  to  find  ?  98. 
What  next  above  the  lava?  98.  What  above  the  trap?  98. 
What  above  the  granite  ?  98.  Name  all  the  formations  above  the 
granite,  beginning  with  the  primary?  98.  Do  each  of  these  last 
form  an  entire  layer  around  the  whole  «arth  ?  98.  Explain  the 
reasons  ?  98.  On  what  may  the  cultivable  soil  lie  ?  If  it  lies  on 
granite,  what  is  that  region  called  ?  98.  If  on  primary  rocks  ?  98. 
If  on  secondary  ?  98.     If  on  tertiary  ?  98.     If  on  alluvial  ?  98. 

Of  what  does  soil  consist  ?  99.  What  rock  must  it  have  origina- 
ted from  ?  99.  Whence  did  all  the  igneous  rocks  on  and  near  the 
earth's  surface  come  ?  99.  What  changes  have  befallen  them  from 
the  time  of  their  emission  from  the  earth  ?  99.  What  has  been 
mingled  with  them,  to  form  a  soil  fit  for  cultivation,  containing 
the  organic  as  well  as  the  mineral  ingredients  ?  99.  Do  we 
know  all  the  agencies  by  which  the  Almighty  prepared  the 
soil  for  man  ?  99.  What  were  some  of  his  agents  ?  99.  Did  Grod 
make  the  earth  a  garden  ?  99.  What  did  he  make  it  capable  ot 
becoming  by  human  agency  ?  99. 
11 


242  CATECHISM   OF 

Why  have  not  rural  employments  been  held  in  the  highest 
honor  ?  100.  What  employment  is  most  conducive  to  rationa. 
enjoyment  and  long  life  ?  100.  How  did  the  Creator  intend  that 
the  farmer  should  thrive  ?  100.  How  has  He  therefore  made  his 
employment?  100. 

Chemically  considered,  what  is  the  difference  between  good 
soils  and  poor  ?  101.  Does  a  soil  which  the  Creator  has  perfected 
by  those  protracted  agencies  before  spoken  of,  contain  the 
elements  in  Table  I.  ?  102.     Is  it  almost  wholly  made  up  of  them  1 

102.  Do  they  exist  in  it  in  their  elementary  state  ?  102. 

Do  the  binary  compounds  mentioned  in  Table  I.,  either  exist 
in  soils,  or  in  some  way  contribute  to  their  fertility?  Table  I.#nd 

103,  104,  &c.  What  is  sulphuric  acid  ?  Tables  I.  How  much  of 
this  might  be  expected  to  be  found  in  a  good  soil  ?  103.  In 
what  state?  103. 

What  is  phosphoric  acid  ?  Table  I.  aad  47.  How  much  of  this 
might  we  expect  to  find  in  a  good  soil?  103.     In  what  state? 

What  do  you  say  of  carbonic  acid  in  soils  ?  104.  Of  silicic  acid  ? 
105.  Of  nitric  acid?  106.  Of  water?  107.  How  does  the  food 
of  plants  enter  them  ?  107.  How  much  oxygen  will  water  ab- 
sorb or  dissolve  in  itself?  107.  How  mflch  nitrogen?  107. 
How  much  hydrogen  ?  107.  How  much  carbonic  acid  ?  107. 
How  much  ammonia  ?  107.  What  does  water  do  with  these 
gases?  107. 

What  other  substances  does  water  dissolve  and  carry  into 
plants  ?  107.  How  does  the  excess  of  water  then  leave  the 
plant?  107.  What  benefit  in  irrigating  with  pure  water?  107. 
What  extra  benefit  in  irrigating  with  impure  water?  107.  How 
may  such  irrigation  be  considered?  107. 

What  is  said  of  the  oxides  of  iron  in  soils  ?  108.  Of  the  oxides 
of  manganese?  109.  Of  potash?  110.  Of  soda?  111.  Of  lime? 
112.  Of  magnesia?  113.  Of  alumina?  114.  Of  chloride  of  so- 
dium ?  115.  Of  sulphuret  of  iron  ?  116.  Of  sulphuret  of  hydro- 
gen? 117.     Of  light  carburetted  hydrogen?  118.     Of  ammonia? 

Do  these  binary  compounds  exist  as  such  in  soils  ?  121.  If 
not,  how  then  ?  121. 

What  do  you  understand  by  the  inorganic  part  of  a  soil  ?  122. 
What  by  the  organic  part  ?  122.  A  stick  of  oak  wood  contains 
about  98  parts  of  organic  matter  to  two  of  inorganic ;  if  you  burn 
it,  where  does  the  organic  part  go  ?  Into  the  air.  What  becomes 
of  the  inorganic  part  ?  It  falls  down  as  ash.  What  four  elements 
constitute  organic  matter?  122.  Why  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen  and  nitrogen,  called  organic  elements  ?  33. 

As  vegetable  matter  decays,  does  it  form  organic  acids  ?  122. 
How  many  ?  122.  What  are  the  names  ?  122.  What  other  or- 
ganic acids  are  mentioned  ?  123.  What  is  the  composition  of 
acetic  acid  (vinegar)?  123.     What  of  oxalic  acid  (C^O^)  ?  123. 

If  oxalic  acid  should  combine  with  potash,  soda,  hme,  or  some 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.     243 

other  base  (Table  III.),  what  salts  would  it  form  ?  Oxalate  of 
potash,  oxalate  of  soda,  &c.  Do  all  these  acids  form  salts  with 
the  bases  in  a  similar  way  ?  They  do,  and  they  are  named  from 
the  acid,  changing  its  ending  into  ate,  and  the  base ;  as  oxalate  of 
lime,  acetate  of  potash,  &c.,  &;c. 

PLANTS. 

What  do  you  say  of  the  well-matured  seed  ?  124.  Of  the  em- 
bryo ?  125.  What  further  of  the  embryo  ?  126.  Of  what  does 
the  germ  consist?  127.  What  is  the  office  of  the  leaves ?  127. 
Of  the  roots  ?  127.  Do  plants  choose  their  food  ?  Illustration  1 
127  and  128. 

What  are  the  essentials  of  germination  ?  129.  Whence  does 
the  plant  derive  its  first  food  ?  129.  When  does  a  plant  hate,  and 
when  love  ;the  light  ?  130.  Will  you  repeat  what  are  the  essen- 
tials of  germination?  129.  When  these  are  supplied,  what  takes 
place?  131.     Explain  this  evolution  of  heat?  131  and  132. 

Is  acetic  acid  (vinegar)  formed  in  the  seed  ?   133.     For  what 

Eurpose  ?  What  other  substance  is  formed  ?  133.  What  power 
as  diastase?  133.  Is  there  sugar  in  the  seed?  133.  What  is 
turned  into  sugar  ?  133.  What  takes  place  in  cooking  flour?  134. 
Explain?  135  and  136.  During  germination,  what  do  seeds  ab- 
sorb, and  what  emit  ?  137.  What  takes  place  afterwards  ?  137. 
Why  is  this?  137. 

What  reflection  may  we  make  ?  138.  What  suggestion  to  the 
husbandman?  138.  Will  |fc  illustrate  this  in  full  ?  138.  What 
further  is  said  about  startin^plants  well?  139.  At  whose  dispo- 
sal is  a  part  of  what  makes  plants  grow  ?  140.  Whose  is  another 
part?  If  we  work  our  own  part  rightly,  what  takes  place?  140. 
What  is  the  moral?  141  and  142. 

Do  plants  purify  the  air  for  animals?  143.  How?  143.  Do 
animals  enrich  the  air  for  plants  ?  How  ?  Are  they  mutually 
beneficial?  143.     Who  breathes  the  best  air ?  143. 

Whence  does  the  plant  obtain  most  of  its  carbon  ?  144. 
Whence  the  rest?  144.  How  are  its  oxygen  and  hydrogen  fur- 
nished? 144.  How  are  they  taken  in?  144.  How  is  the  plant 
furnished  with  nitrogen?  145.  In  what  do  nitric  acid  and  am- 
monia exist?  145.  Are  animal  manures  specially  valuable  for 
the  nitrogen  in  them  ?  They  are.  What  does  the  nitrogen  in 
fermenting  animal  manures  form,  if  nothing  else  is  present? 
Volatile  ammonia,  which  escapes  and  is  lost.  What  does  it  form, 
if  plenty  of  peat  and  a  little  slacked  lime  are  mixed  ?  In  this 
case  the  nitrogen  forms  nitric  acid ;  this  combines  with  the  lime, 
forming  nitrate  of  lime,  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the  manure. 

Whence  does  the  plant  obiiin  most  of  its  organic  elements? 
146.  How  might  we  say  the  olant  feeds  itself?  147.  Explain 
further?  147.  s 


244  '  CATECHISM   OF 

What  do  you  say  of  the  flower-leaves  (petals, .  148.  Does  this 
give  them  their  colors  ?  148.     How?  148. 

After  flowering,  what  seems  to  be  their  principal  effort  ?  149. 
Is  the  growth  always  a  measure  of  fruitfulness  ?  149.  What  is 
said  of  manuring  corn  wholly  in  the  hill?  149.  What  of 
corn-roots  ?  149.  Should  all  the  manure  then  be  in  one  place  ? 
149. 

Is  late  hoeing  injurious  ?  150.  Why?  150.  Will  you  explain 
this  fully?  151. 

With  regard  to  the  circulation  of  plants,  what  may  be  taken 
as  a  sort  of  sample  ?  153.  Of  what  does  the  stem  consist  ?  154. 
What  of  the  pith?  155.  Describe  the  roots?  156.  What  are 
the  spongioles?  157.     Describe  the  rootlets?  158. 

What  is  said  of  the  branches  and  twigs?  159.  What  are  the 
leaf-stems?  160.  What  flows  through  them?  160.  What  does 
the  circulation  of  the  sap  through  the  leaves  resemble?  160. 
Describe  the  leaves  ?  160. 

When  the  sap  has  circulated  through  the  leaves,  what  takes 
place?  161.     How  is  the  annual  layer  of  wood  formed  ?  161. 

What  is  the  destiny  of  all.  that  lives  ?  162.  On  what  do  men, 
brutes  and  plants  hve  ?  162.  What  of  the  floating  matter  around 
us?  162.     What  is  probable  ? 

What  does  the  plant  devour?  163.  What  happens  to  it  in 
return?  163. 

When  plants  have  passed  their  maturity,  what  happens  ?  164. 
What  are  their  proximate  constituents  ?  164.  What  secondary 
products  come  from  these  ?  '^ 

What  is  said  of  starch?  165.  Of  sago?  165.  Of  arrow-root  ? 
165.     Of  tapioca?  165.     Of  all  these?  165. 

Of  what  are  starch,  gum  and  sugar  composed?  166.  Of  what 
are  gluten,  caseine  and  albumen  composed  ?  167.  Why  are  they 
called  nitrogenous  ?  167.  What  do  they  contain  besides  the 
organic  elements  ?  167.  Do  one  or  more  of  them  exist  in  all 
plants?  168. 

What  can  you  say  of  gluten?  169.  Of  caseine?  170.  Of 
albumen  ?  171.  How  can  you  separate  the  constituents  of  flour  ? 
172  and  173. 

Which  of  the  substances  just  spoken  of  contain  nitrogen  ? 
174.  What  else  ?  What  letters  then  may  characterize  them  ? 
174.  Which  contain  no  nitrogen?  175.  What  letters  may 
characterize  these  ?  166.  Which  are  most  nutritious,  as  food  ? 
175. 

What  remarkable  fact  is  stated  of  starch,  gum  and  sugar  ?  175. 
In  what  proportions  are  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  them?  175. 
Is  the  same  true  of  woody  fibre  ?  175.  Of  what  then  do  they 
consist? 

Are  starch,  gum  and  sugar  identical  in  composition  ?  175  and 
176.     Of  what  transformations  are  they  capable  ?  176. 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  PRAC:iCAL  AGRICULTURE     245 


ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

Besides  organic  matter,  what  12  ingredients  enter  into  soils  ? 
!79.  Which  of  these  does  not  pass  into  plants  ?  180.  Which  of 
the  eleven  that  pass  into  plants,  does^  not  pass  into  the  composi- 
tion of  animals  ?  180.  Through  what  round  do  the  other  ten 
pass?  180.  What  is  the  effect  of  selling  crops?  To  exhaust  the 
land.  What  is  the  effect  of  selling  beef,  pork,  butter,  cheese,  &c.  ? 
The  same,  but  to  a  less  degree.  What  would  be  the  effect  of  sell- 
ing everything  from  a  farm  ?  180,  end. 

What  is  the  prevention  ?  181.  Why  may  farmers  near  the 
city  sell  all  ?  181.  What  is  the  true  way  for  the  great  mass  ot 
farmers?  181. 

What  is  important  for  practical  farmers?  What  are  the 
animals  to  consume  mainly  the  produce  of  American  far- 
mers? 183. 

Into  what  three  classes  may  we  divide  animals  ?  184.  What 
return  work  only  for  their  keeping  ?  184.  What  work  and 
growth  ?  185.  What  return  the  products  of  their  bodies  only  ? 
186.  What  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  farmer  should  get  the 
worth  of  his  feed  from  animals  ?  186. 

What  are  the  conditions  of  farming  ?  187.  How  must  the  far- 
mer dispose  of  his  crops  ?  187.  What  are  his  pay-masters  ?  187. 
On  what  condition  are  they  "  good  pay'?"  187.  Hoav  should  he 
use  them?  187.  Why?  187.  For  what  other  reason?  187. 
Explain?  187. 

What  is  said  of  being  observant  of  the  habits  of  animals  and  at- 
tentive to  their  wants  ?  188. 

What  of  providing  for  the  comfort  of  animals  both  in  summer 
and  in  winter  ?  189. 

How  should  animals  be  supphed  with  salt?  190.  Wliat  have 
some  supposed  with  regard  to  watering  animals  ?  191.  What  is 
the  truth  in  this  matter?  191. 

What  hay  should  be  given  to  milch  cows?  192.  What  to 
working  cattle  and  horses?  192.  To  dry  cows?  192.  How 
should  young  stock  be  fed?  !92. 

What  two  sources  does  the  farmer  look  to  for  his  remunera- 
tion for  wintering  stock  ?  193.  Will  stock  cattle  pay  for  their 
keeping,  if  fed  on  good  hay  only  ?  193. 

Will  you  illustrate  the  fact  last  stated?  194.  How  must  the 
loss  be  avoided?  194.  What  aret!''e  equivalents  of  one  lb.  of  In- 
dian meal  mentioned  at  the  close  of  section  194? 

Now  although  hay  alone,  given  to  stock  cattle,  will  not  produce 
an  advance  in  their  value  equal  to  its  estimated  worth,  may  not 
a  proper  mixture  of  food  effect  the  object?.  195.  Will  you  state 
the  argument,  as  in  the  195th  section  ? 

Can  certain  rules  be  given  ?  196.  What  cf  the  feeder  ?  196L 
What  of  feeding?  190. 


246  CATECHISM   OF 

What  is  the  office  of  starch,  gum  and  sugar  in  animal  food? 
197.  Of  the  nitrogenous  substances,  gluten,  caseine  and  albu- 
men? 197.  Of  oil?  197.  Of  all  the  organic  substances?  197. 
Of  phosphate  of  lime  ?  197. 

Explain  how  the  non-nitrogenous  substances  support  respira- 
tion? 198. 

To  what  may  the  lungs  be  compared  ?  199.  How  may  the 
starch,  gum  and  sugar  be  regarded  ?  199. 

Will  you  give  the  substance  of  section  200  ?  Of  201  ?  Of 
202  ?     Of  203  ? 

At  how  many  things  especially  must  the  farmer  look?  204. 
What  is  the  first  ?  204.     What  the  second  ? 

What  is  the  farmer  to  dispose  of  first  ?  205.  In  what  condi- 
tion should  his  stock  face  the  solid  winter  ?  205.  Why  ?  205. 
What  preparations  should  he  have  made*?  205. 

What  is  the  composition  of  good  meadow  hay  ?  206,  What  is 
a  most  valuable  ingredient  of  the  inorganic  matter  ?  206. 

What  will  you  say  of  such  hay  for  the  purposes  of  feeding  ? 
207.  How  should  good  early-cut  hay  be  disposed  of  among  the 
cattle?  207.     What  of  hay  for  horses?  207. 

What  is  said  of  the  use  to  be  made  of  less  valuable  hay?  208. 
What  is  a  great  fault  in  expending  poor  hay?  208. 

To  what  account  may  very  poor  hay,  if  the  farmer  have  such, 
be  turned  ?  209. 

Can  straw  be  put  to  any  use,  as  fodder?  210.  What  is  observ- 
able with  regard  to  it?  210. 

What  is  the  analysis  of  Indian  corn?  211.  In  what  is  the  ash 
peculiarly  rich  ?  211.  Why  is  it  very  fattening  ?  211.  What  is 
its  tendency  when  given  to  milch  cows?  211. 

What  is  said  of  corn  as  food  for  horses  ?  212.  If  horses  are 
fed  on  corn,  should  it  be  old  or  new?  213.  What  of  corn  for 
fattening  sheep  ?  214.  What  cheaper  food  is  recommended  for 
store-sheep?  214. 

What  is  the  staple  for  pork-making  ?  215.  Of  what  opinion 
are  many  farmers  ?  215.  Will  feeding  corn  to  swine  pay  in  all 
cases  ?  215.  What  should  be  remembered  ?  215.  What  is  neces- 
sary in  order  that  the  making  of  pork  and  lard  should  pay?  216. 

Should  corn-meal  for  swine  be  fermented?  217.  There  are 
several  degrees  of  fermentation ;  what  is  the  first  ?  217.  The 
second?  217.  The  third?  217.  If  Indian  meal  were  passed 
through  all  these  stages,  would  it  be  fattening?  217.  If  arrested, 
between  the  first  and  second,  what  is  believed  ?  217. 

What  is  the  composition  of  oats  ?  218.  What  is  observed  with 
regard  to  them  ?  218.  What  of  oat  straw  ?  218.  To  what  should 
it  not  be  given  ?  218.  Why  ?  218.  What  is  said  of  fattening 
animals?  218. 

How  does  rye  compare  with  corn?  219.  How  differ?  219. 
What  more  is  said  ?  219. 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE,     247 

What  can  you  say  of  growing  carrots,  and  of  the  nse  to  which 
they  should  be  put  ?  220. 

What  is  the  composition  of  turnips,  and  the  best  use  to  be  made 
of  them  ?  221. 

What  of  potatoes  ?  222.  If  used  for  cattle,  or  other  animals, 
how  is  their  value  increased  ?  222. 

What  is  said  of  apples  raw  ?  223.  Cooked  ?  223.  Of  cooking 
food  in  general  ?  223.  • 

Should  coarse  hay  and  straw  be  cut  ?  224.     Why  ?  224. 

What  would  you  say  of  letting  stock  to  be  wintered  become 
poor  at  the  threshold  of  winter?  225.  On  the  heels  of  winter? 
225.  What  would  you  advise  with  regard  to  both  the  fall  and 
the  spring  ?  225.     Why  ?  225. 

What  advice  would  you  give  with  regard  to  young  cattle  ?  226. 

To  what  are  all  animals  subject  ?  227.  Explain  this  further  ? 
227. 

What  is  said  of  milk  in  section  228  ?  In  229  ?  In  230  ?  In 
231?  In  232?  In  233?  In  234?  In  235?  In  236?  In  237? 
In  238  ? 

What  is  said  of  butter  in  239?  In  240?  In  241  ?  In  242  ? 
In  243?  In  244?  In  245?  In  246?  In  247?  In  248?  In 
249?    In  250?    In  251?    In  252?    In  253?    In  254?    In  255? 

What  is  said  of  cheese  in  256?  In  257?  In  258?  In  259? 
In  260?  In  261?  In  262?  In  263?  In  264?  In  265?  In 
266?    In  267?    In  268?    In  269? 

MANURES. 

Into  how  many  and  what  classes  may  lands  be  distributed  with 
relation  to  manure  ?  272. 

What  three  kinds  of  land  belong  to  the  first  class  ?  273.  What 
is  said  of  lands  belonging  to  the  second  class?  274.  On  what 
condition  are  these  to  be  cultivated?  274.  What  of  lands  be- 
longing to  the  third  class  ?  275. 

Of  the  three  soils  of  which  an  analysis  is  given  by  Professor 
Johnstone,  which  exhibits  no  deficiencies?  276.  In  what  is  the 
second  deficient?  276.     In  what  the  third? 

Would  the  first  of  these  soils  produce  any  one  of  the  crops  men- 
tioned in  Table  V.,  without  manure  ?  276  and  277.  How  does 
this  appear?  276  and  277.  How  does  it  appear  that  the  second 
would  nroduce,  by  the  addition  of  potash,  soda  and  chlorine  ?  276 
and  277.     What  of  the  third  ?  278. 

What  would  you  do  with  such  a  soil  as  the  first?  279.  As  the 
second?  279  and  280.  Would  the  special  manuring,  recom- 
mended for  the  second,  answer  permanently  ?  281. 

What  would  farming  become,  if  reliable  analyses  of  soils  could 
in  all  cases  be  obU'.ae^  ?  282.  Explain  the  benefit  of  such  know- 
ledge? 282. 


248  CATECHISM   OF 

What  of  the  import*  ce  of  manures  ?  283.  What  of  good  man- 
agement in  this  respect  ?  284. 

Will  you  explain  the  distinction  of  manures  into  animal,  vege- 
table and  mineral  ?  285.  What  is  the  difference  between  manures 
and  stimulants  ?  286.  What  are  amenders  ?  286.  What  is  un- 
fortunate for  this  distinction  ?  287. 

What  do  you  understand  by  organic  matter  in  soils?  288. 
How  can  you  ascertain  i||p  per  cent,  in  a  soil  ?  289. 

What  three  modes  are  there  of  restoring  organic  matter  to 
soils?  290. 

How  do  the  acids  exist  in  soils  ?  291.  Chlorine  and  soda  ? 
291. 

What  is  said  of  applying  mineral  manures  in  292  ? 

What  have  some  supposed  ?  293.  If  we  could  know  precisely 
what  mineral  manures  to  apply,  would  these  produce  fertility  per- 
manently? 293.  Why  not?  293.  What  would  have  to  be  re- 
sorted to  ere  long?  293. 

What  is  the  farmer's  great  resource  ?  294.  What  must  enrich 
the  farm  ?  294.     How  can  this  be  effected  ?  294. 

What  is  said  of  the  value  of  manures  ?  295.  What  is  the  golden 
subject  of  agriculture  ?  296. 

Into  what  shape  should  the  surface  of  the  barn-yard  be  put  ? 

How  would  you  prevent  water  running  downwards  into  the 
soil  ?  299. 

Explain  the  use  of  peat,  swamp  mud,  &:c.,  as  retainers  ?  300. 
Whence  the  great  value  of  these  substances  for  mixing  with  ma- 
nures ?  301. 

What  farmers  may  well  purchase  fertilizers  from  abroad  ?  302. 
What  would  you  say  if  those  who  have  not  husbanded  their  home 
resources,  should  expend  money  for  fertilizers  from  abroad  ?  303. 

What  is  said  of  making  barn-yard  manure  in  section  304?  In 
305  ?  In  306  ?  What  of  the  value  of  manure  thus  composted  in  the 
barn-yard?  306. 

How  many  cellars  should  a  barn  have  ?  308.  Why  should  each 
cool?  308. 

What  would  you  place  on  the  bottom  of  the  manure  cellar  ? 
309.  How  much?  309.  How  should  this  cellar  be  constructed  ? 
309.  How  much  composting  matter  should  be  in  readiness  for 
the  winter  ?  309. 

Explain  how  you  would  proceed?  310.  When  will  manure  so 
prepared  and  housed  be  ready  for  use  ?  311.  When  has  too  much 
labor  been  withheld?  311.  • 

To  what  use  might  such  manure  be  put?  312. 

In  applying  such  manure,  could  you  exactly  meet  the  wants  of 
the  soil?  313.  What  might  you  expect  if  you  should  supply 
more  of  some  ingredients  than  were  wanted  for  the  first  crop  ? 
313. 

What  of  nitrogen  as  an  ingredient  of  manures?  314.     Wha* 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.    249 

have  some  thought?  314.     Explain  the  formation  of  ammonia? 
314.     Of  carbonate  of  ammonia?  314. 

How  can  the  escape  of  ammonia  be  prevented  ?  315.  Will  you 
give  the  explanation  in  full?  315. 

What  injury  comes  from  the  washing  of  manures?  316.  From 
excessive  fermentation?  316.  What  example  of  burning  ma- 
nure? 317. 

What  is  said  of  pig-pen  manure  in  318  ?  In  319?  In  320? 
In  321?    In  322?    In  323  ?    In  324? 

What  should  be  a  rule  for  manures?  325.  How  can  the  wash- 
ing of  manures  be  prevented  during  heavy  rains  ?   320  and  325. 

In  what  two  conditions  will  a  pig-pen  be  very  offensive  ?  326. 
What  four  bad  consequences  follow  ?  326.  What  then  is  another 
rule  ?  327.  How  can  all  the  bad  consequences  before  spoken  of 
be  prevented?  327.  Why  should  the  farmer  be  more  careful 
than  others  that  no  offensive  odor  arise  from  his  premises  l^fj^S. 
What  is  a  singular  but  well-known  fact  ?  328. 

What  is  said  of  the  manure  of  the  sheep-fold  in  section  329  ? 
In  330?    In  331? 

What  portable  and  inoffensive  fertilizer  is  sometimes  prepared 
from  night-soil?  332.  What  advantage  arises  from  this?  332. 
On  a  farm,  how  may  night-soil  be  managed  advantageously  ?  333, 
334  and  335. 

How  may  the  washings  of  the  sink  be  best  managed  and  ap- 
plied ? 

What  is  said  of  composting  in  337  ?  In  338  ?  In  339  ?  In  340  ? 
In  ,341?    In  342? 

Should  there  be  in  the  vicinity  of  the  house  a  place  of  recep- 
tion for  whatever  may  be  of  value  for  the  land  ?  343.  Will  you 
describe  how  it  may  be  managed  ?  343.  Describe  further,  as  in 
344?    As  in  345? 

What  is  said  of  woollen  rags  ?  346.  Of  old  shoes  and  boots, 
and  of  accumulations  of  leather  parings  ?  346,  Of  dead  animals  ? 
347.  Of  bones?  348.  What  further  of  bones  in  349?  In 
350? 

What  would  you  say  of  burning  bones  and  then  applying  the 
ashes? 

What  is  said  of  foreign  fertilizers  ?  352.  Of  the  men  who  un- 
dertake to  furnish  them  ?  353. 

How  can  the  farmer  best  decide  for  himself  when  to  go  to  the 
expense  of  purchasing  fertilizers  from  abroad  ?  354.  Till  he  thus 
decides;  on  what  must  he  depend  ? 

What  further  is  said  of  the  importance  of  home  manures  in 
356?    In  357? 

Why  has  the  chemistry  of  common  ohjects  been  dwelt  upon  in 
former  portions  of  this  work  ?  358.     Why  the  geological  forma- 
tion of  soils  ?  358.     How  have  plants  and  animals  been  spoken 
of?  358.    How  manures  ?  358. 
11^ 


250  CATECHISM  OF 

What  is  said  of  land  in  most  European  countries  ?  359.  How 
in  our  own  country  ?  360. 

Will  you  describe  the  condition  of  a  thriftlessly  managed  farm  ? 
361.  What  might  the  owner  have  done?  36^.  What  is  said  of 
other  farms?  363. 

What  would  be  the  perfection  of  farming  ?  364.  Explain  ?  364. 
Have  some  farms  doubled  and  some  halved  the  amount  of  ma- 
nure ?  364.     How  are  the  owners  ?  364. 

What  does  this  show  ?  365.     What  else  does  it  show  ?  365. 

Is  perfection  in  crop-growing  attainable  ?  366.  How  then 
must  we  proceed  ? 

What  do  you  say  of  the  analysis  and  the  examination  of  soils  ? 
367.  Who  only  can  make  reliable  analyses?  367.  Who  can 
make  examinations  of  soils  ?  367.  What  of  the  observing  far- 
mer? 367. 

"ViSiat  advice  then  should  be  given  to  the  farmer?  368.  To 
what  should  he  be  encouraged  ?  368. 

If  I  were  thinking  to  buy  a  farm  at  a  fixed  price,  what  should 
I  do  well,  in  the  first  place,  to  inquire  ?  370. 

If  the  farm  were  wholly  of  one  kind  of  land,  what  might  it  be 
well  to  do?  371.     If  there  were  8  or  10  varieties?  371. 

Will  you  describe  what  would  be  called  a  pure  clay  ?  372,  1. 
How  is  a  strong  clay  soil  constituted  ?  372,  2.  A  clay  loam  ?  372,  3. 
A  loam?  372,  4.  A  sandy  hamf  372,  5.  A  sandy  soil?  372,  6. 
Peat?  372,  7.     Swamp  muck?  372,  8. 

How  could  you  decide  for  yourself  to  which  of  these  classes  a 
soil  belongs  ?  373. 

How  would  the  existence  of  all  these  soils  on  a  farm  affect  its 
value  ?  374.  Why  not  purchase  a  farm  that  needs  no  amend- 
ment ?  374. 

What  encouragement  do  you  find  for  such  as  are  obliged  to 
work  farms  which  need  amending  ?  374.  Give  an  instance  where 
an  improvement  might  be  made  at  a  cost  less  than  its  probable 
value  ?  375. 

Will  you  give  another  such  instance?  376.  Another?  377. 
Another  still  ?  378.  In  purchasing  a  farm,  what  should  we  look 
at  ?  379.     What  four  things  should  we  study  ?  379. 

Will  you  now  repeat  how  many  and  what  soils,  exclusive  of 
peat  and  swamp  muck,  we  have  spoken  of?  What  remains  ?  380. 

What  can  you  say  of  the  density  of  soils?  381.  Will  you  state 
what  is  about  the  weight  of  a  sandy  soil  ?  382.  Of  the  several 
other  soils  here  named  ?  382.  What  is  said  cf  soils  retaining 
heat?  382. 

What  do  you  say  of  the  fineness  of  soils  ?  383.  Of  their  ad- 
hesiveness ?  384.  Of  their  power  of  absorbing  moisture  ?  385, 
Of  their  power  of  containing  moisture  ?  386. 

What  is  capillary  attraction  ?  387.  Does  this  exist  in  soils  ? 
388.     Illustrate  this  by  an  experiment?  388.     Will  you  show 


SCIENTIFIC   AND  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.     251 

whywater  in  the  subsoil  makes  a  field  cold  ?  389.     State  the  ar- 
gument in  favor  of  draining  wet  lands  ?  390. 

When  does  the  water  in  a  soil  sink  ?  391.  When  does  it  rise  ? 
391.  What  do  you  call  that  action  by  which  it  rises?  387. 
Will  you  explain  this  more  fully  ?  391. 

Should  a  cultivated  soil  be  permeated  by  the  air  ?  392.  What 
is  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  in  each  square  inch  of  soil  ?  68. 
Would  this  pressure  force  the  air  into  openings  made  by  the 
plough  and  harrow  ?  It  would. 

What  gases  does  a  rich  and  moist  soil  take  from  the  air  ?  392. 
What  possesses  this  power  in  a  high  degree  ?  393.  What  infer- 
ence from  this  ?  393. 

-  What  possesses  this  power  of  absorbing  and  holding  gases  in 
the  next  degree  ?  394.  What  possesses  it  in  a  considerable  de- 
gree ?  394.  What  in  the  lowest  degree  ?  394.  What  argument 
do  we  derive  from  this  against  entrusting  green  manures  to  light 
soils?  402.  What  in  favor  of  composting  such  manures  with 
peat?  402. 

What  is  said  of  the  effect  of  peat,  swamp  muck,  and  fermented 
manures  ?  395.  Will  you  describe  the  effects  of  mixing  clay  with 
sandy  soils  ?  396. 

If  the  farm,  before  spoken  of,  has  now  been  bought,  what  will 
become  the  question  ?  397.  State  some  of  the  difficulties  which 
the  occupant  will  have  to  encounter  ?  397. 

What  will  the  farmer  find  among  the  first  things  to  be  done  ? 
398.  Can  he  apply  these  manures,  so  as  to  give  every  field  ex- 
actly what  it  needs,  and  no  more?  399.  How  may  he  apply 
them?  399. 

How  may  he  find  things  on  this  farm?  400.  How  must  he 
take  them  ?  401. 

If  he  should  conclude  to  use  half  his  green  manure  now,  and 
keep  the  other  half  for  composting,  what  would  you  say  of  put- 
ting the  first  half  into  sandy  or  lightish  loamy  soils  ?  402.  What 
objection  is  there  to  using  it  as  a  top-dressing  for  mow-land  ? 
402.  Might  it  do  well  thus  ?  402.  What  would  be  a  safer  appli-r 
cation  of  it  ?  402.  Why  ?  402,  393  and  394.  What  striking  in, 
stance  of  loss,  by  the  application  of  green  manure  to  a  sandy  soil, 
is  mentioned  ?  402.  How  has  better  corn  been  raised  on  similar 
lands?  402. 

What  is  said  of  the  application  of  barn-yard  manure  ?  403. 
What  of  the  composted  manure  supposed  to  be  found  on  this 
farm  ?  404.  What  of  hog-pen  manure  ?  405.  Of  sink  settlings  ? 
406.     Of  chip  manure?  406. 

What  is  said  of  the  application  of  night-soil  ?  407.  What  does 
old  plastering  contain  ?  408.  What  is  its  most  valuable  ingre- 
dient ?  408.  Is  this  very  soluble  ?  408.  Would  you  put  it  on  a 
small  space  ?  364  and  408. 

How  should  our  farmer,  on  his  new  place,  decide  whether  to 


252  CATECHISM   OF 

purchase  plaster  largely  or  not  ?  409.  Will  you  give  the  several 
efifects  which  plaster  produces  on  soils  adapted  to  it  ?  410. 

Will  plaster  operate  well  alone  permanently  ?  411.  What  does 
it  require?  411.  In  what  two  ways  is  organic  matter  added 
when  plaster  is  used  on  pastures?  411.  How  should  it  be  added 
when  plaster  is  used  on  mow-lands?  411.  How  on  ploughing ? 
411.  Should  we  complain  of  plaster  because  other  manuring  is 
required  to  keep  the  land  permanently  good?  411.  What  of 
ashes?  411  and  56,  near  the  end. 

Does  the  subject  of  capillary  attraction,  as  explained  in  387  and 
onward,  throw  any  light  on  the  question  of  deep  ploughing?  413. 
In  what  case  might  it  be  bad  policy  to  plough  deeply  ?  413.  If 
the  soil  is  deep,  and  the  subsoil  compact,  what  do  you  say  ?  414. 
Eeasons  ?  414. 

On  all  ordinary  soils,  how  deep  should  we  plough  at  least  ?  415. 
If  the  soil  below  that  depth  is  impervious  to  water,  what  should 
be  done  ?  415.  What  two  dangers  do  you  thus  escape  ?  415. 
What  positive  benefit  do  you  gain  ?  415. 

Explain  the  operation  of  water  as  a  carrier  of  food  to  plants  ? 
416.  Will  you  illustrate  still  more  fully  the  necessity  of  the  free 
passage  of  water  and  air  through  the  soil?  417. 

What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  deep  ploughing?  418.  What 
caution  is  to  be  observed?  418.  What  would  be  the  safest 
course?  419. 

What  is  said  of  mixing  unlike  soils?  420.  How  may  this 
sometimes  be  done  without  the  labor  of  transportation?  420. 
What  cause  sometimes  prevents  the  good  eflfect  of  deep  plough- 
ing ?  420. 

How  may  the  farmer  judge  whether  his  land  is  troubled  with 
the  protoxide  of  iron  ?  420.  If  it  should  prove  to  be  so,  what 
may  he  do  ? 

How  many  oxides  of  iron  are  there  in  soils?  53  and  54. 
Which  of  these  is  very  soluble  in  water  ?  53.  What  is  its  effect 
on  plants  ?  53.  To  what  does  this  oxide  turn  when  exposed  to 
the  sun  and  air  ?  53. 

What  is  said  of  a  properly  prepared  soil?  421.  How  does  it 
sustaiji  vegetation  ?  421.  What  auxiharies  has  it  ?  421.  What 
further  is  said  of  such  a  soil  ?   422. 

What  is  said  of  the  best  time  for  cutting  grass  ?  423.  Of  the 
importance  of  early  hoeing  ?  423.  Of  the  time  when  wheat,  rye 
and  oats  should  be  cut?  423.  Which  gives  most  hay,  early  or 
late  cutting?  423.     Which  gives  the  best ?  423. 

What  frequently  occupies  the  attention  of  farmers  after  hay- 
ing? 424.  Which  of  those  great  improvements,  before  spoken 
of,  would  he  be  tempted  to  enter  upon  first  ?  424.  Why  may 
we  suppose  that  he  will  prefer  to  take  hold  of  the  business  of 
draining?  424. 

What  sort  of  a  s\\;amp  is  it,  livhich  he  wishes  to  drain  ?  424 


SCIENTIFIC   AND   PRACTICAL   AGRICULTURE.    253 

How  might  he  proceed  ?  425.  If  he  hire  this  work,  how  should 
it  be  done  ?  426.  Why  by  the  job  ?  426.  How  could  he  and 
tlie  men  who  should  undertake  it  ascertain  what  would  be  a  fair 
remuneration?  426.  • 

How  long  would  the  mud  thrown  up  improve  in  quality  by 
lying?  427.  How  long  at  least  should  it  lie?  427.  Would  it  be 
too  heavy  to  remove  when  first  thrown  up  ?     It  would. 

What  further  is  said  of  the  work  to  be  done  on  this  swamp  ? 

427.  What  three  modes  of  filling  covered  drains  are  mentioned  ? 

428.  There  would  be  much  labor  in  reclaiming  five  acres  of  such 
land  ;  would  it  probably  pay  ?  428. 

What  is  said  of  brush-drains  ?  429. .  Of  stone-drains  ?  429.  Of 
tile-drains  ?  429.  What  caution  is  requisite,  that,  in  laying  tile- 
drains,  the  ends  of  the  tiles  do  not  get  slipped  aside  from  each 
other  and  filled  up  ?  429. 

What  is  said  of  draining  lands  that  are  not  considered  swampy  ? 
430.  What  name  is  given  to  the  regular  draining  of  lands,  with 
covered  drains,  at  equal  distances  from  each  other?  430,  at  the 
end. 

If,  another  season,  our  farmer  should  have  time  and  means  to 
attack  that  ten-acre  lot^  how  might  he  lay  out  and  prosecute  the 
work?  431  and  432. 

The  labor  of  reclaiming  and  amending  lands  could  hardly  "  pay" 
in  a  new  country,  and  especially  if  far  from  market;  will  you 
state  some  reasons  for  believing  it  to  be  a  paying  business  in  the 
Atlantic  States,  where  the  produce  is  near  great  markets,  and 
where  it  g<jnerally  brings  a  good  price?  433. 

What  would  you  say  of  putting  clay  on  sandy  soils,  if  the  c'ay 
lies  very  near  ?  434.  And  what  would  you  say  of  the  prospect 
of  remuneration,  provided  the  land  is  in  the  vicinity  of  a  good 
market?  434. 

Which  do  you  think  is  best  paid  for  his  labor,  the  man  who  , 
spoils  a  good  farm,  or  the  man  who  mends  a  poor  one  ?  434. 

If,  of  two  adjacent  soils,  one  was  too  sandy,  and  the  other  too 
clayey,  how  would  you  amend  them  both  ?  435.  Suppose  a  peaty 
and  a  clayey  soil  to  he  side  by  side,  would  the  same  course  be 
advisable  ?  It  would.  If  a  peaty  and  a  sandy  soil  were  very 
near  each  other,  could  you  apply  the  same  remedy?  I  could. 

Ordinary  soils  weigh  at  about  the  rate  of  1000  tons  to  the 
acre,  taking  them  ten  inches  deep,  which  is  100  tons  for  each  inch 
in  depth ;  would  it  be  necessary,  therefore,  that  soils,  in  order  to 
be  mixed  with  paying  results,  should  lie  near  each  other  ?  It 
would. 

(It  may  be  well  enough  for  you  to  recollect,  that  as  1000  tons 
constitute  the  whole  soil  ten  inches  deep,  100  tons  is  ten  per 
cent,  of  the  whole ;  ten  tons  is  one  per  cent. ;  and  one  ton  is 
one-tenth  of  one  per  cent. ;  so  that  for  every  ten  loads  put  upon 


254    SCIENTIFIC   AND   PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

an  acre  of  land,  one  per  cent,  is  added  to  the  soil,  if  the  ploughing 
is  ten  inches  deep,  or  two  per  cent,  if  only  five.) 

What  is  the  prevaihng  rotation  of  crops  in  England  called? 
436.  What  is  this* course?  436.  To  what  soils  is  it  adapted? 
436.  How  is  the  advantage  of  this  rotation  explained?  436. 
What  rotation  is  there  preferred  for  heavier  soils?  436. 

What  are  two  important  points  of  difference  between  English 
and  American  agriculture?  437.  Does  English  usage  therefore 
throw  much  light  on  our  course  ?  437. 

If  we  look  into  the  analyses  of  crops,  do  we  see  important  dif- 
ferences in  their  requirements  ?  277,  Table  V.  In  the  absence 
of  fixed  rules,  settled,  as  in  European  countries,  by  long  practice^ 
what  general  rule  should  guide  us  ?  437. 


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AMEBICAK  FAEMEE'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA, $4  00 

As  A  Book  of  Reference  for  the  Farmer  or  Gardener,  this 

Work  is  superior  to  any  other.  It  coutaius  Reliable  Information  for  the  Cultivation  of 
every  variety  of  Field  and  Garden  Crops,  the  use  of  all  kinds  of  Manures,  descriptions 
and  figures  of  American  insects  ;  and  is,  indeed,  an  Agricultural  Library  in  itself,  con- 
taining twelve  hundred  pages,  octavo,  and  is  illustrated  by  numerous  engravings  of 
Grasses,  Grains,  Animals,  Implements,  Insacts,  &c.,  &c.  By  Goc^erxbdr  Emkrsox  op 
Pkxnsylvania. 

AMEEICAN  WEEDS  AND  USEFUL  PLANTS,       -      -      -  -160 

An  Illustrated  Edition  of  Agricultural  Botany  ;  An  Enu- 
meration and  Description  of  Weeds  and  Useful  Plants  which  merit  the  notice  or 
require  the  attention  of  American  Agriculturists.  By  Wm.  Darunoton,  M.  D.  Re- 
vised, with  Additions,  by  Gborgk  Thcrber,  Prof,  of  Mat.  Med.  and  Botany  in  the  Xew 
York  College  of  Pharmacy.  Illustrated  with  nearly  300  Figures,  drawn  expressly  for 
this  work. 

ALLEN'S  (E.  L.)  AMERICAN  FARM  BOOK, 1  00 

Or  A  CoMPEND  OP  American  Agriculture  ;    being  a  Practical 

rreatise  on  Soils,  Manures,  Draining,  Irrigation,  Grasses,  Grain,  Roots,  Fruits,  Cotton, 
Tobacco,  Sugar  Cane,  Rice,  and  every  Staple  Product  of  the  United  States  ;  with  the 
best  methods  of  Planting,  Cultivating  and  Preparation  for  Market.  Illustrated  with  more 
than  100  engravings. 

ALLEN'S  (E.  L.)  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,         -      -  76 

Being  a  History  and  Description  of  the  Horse,  Mule,  Cattle, 

Sheep,  Swine,  Poultry  and  Farm  Dogs,  with  Directions  for  their  Management,  Breeding, 
Crossing,  Rearing,  Feeding,  and  Preparation  for  a  Profitable  Market ;  also,  their 
Diseases  ami  Remedies,  together  with  full  Directions  for  the  Management  of  the  Dairy, 
and  the  comparative  Eksonomy  and  Advantages  of  Working  Animals, — the  Horse,  Mule, 
Oxen,  &c. 

ALLEN'S  (L.  F.)  EUBAL  AECHITECTUEE, 1  26 

Being  a  Complete  Description  of  Farm  Houses,  Cottages  and 

Out  Buildings,  comprising  Wood  Houses,  Workshops,  Tc»o!  Houses,  Carriage  and  Wagon 
Houses,  Stables,  Smoke  and  Ash  Houses,  Ice  Houses,  Apiaries  or  Bee  Houses,  Poultry 
Houses,  Babbitry,  Dovecote,  I*iggcry,  Barns  and  Sheds  for  Cattle,  &c.,  &c.  ;  together 
with  Lawns,  Pleasure  Grounds  and  Parks  ;  the  Flower,  Fruit  and  Vegetable  Garden  ; 
also,  the  best  method  of  conducting  water  into  Cattle  Yards  and  Houses.  Beautifully 
illustrated. 

ALLEN  (J.  FISK)  ON  THE  CULTUBE  OF  THE  GEAPE,      -      -      1  00 

A  Practical  Treatis.'  ox  the  Culture  and  Treatment  op  thb 

Grajte  Vine,  embracing  its  History,  with  directions  for  its  Trealraout  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  the  Open  Air  and  under  Glass  StructuroB,  with  and  withoaf 
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AJttEEICAN  ABCHITECT, 6  00 

Comprising  Original  Designs  op  Cheap  Country  and  Village 

Rosideuces,  wiib  Details,  iSpocilicatious,  Pluus  atid  Directions,  and  an  Estimate  of  the  Cost 
of  each  Desij^n.  Bv  John  W.  Ritch,  Architect.  First  and  Second  Series,  4to,  bound  in 
1  vol. 

MVTEKTCAN  FLORIST'S  GTJIDE, 75 

Comprising   the  Americajst  Rose  Culturist,  and  ^Every  Ijady 

her  own  Flower  Gardener. 

ASRY'S  FKUIT  GARDEN, 1  25 

A  Treatise,  Intended  to  Explain  and  Illustrate  the  Physi- 

ology  of  Fruit  Trees,  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  all  Operations  connected  with  the 
Propagation,  Transplanting,  Pruning  and  Training  of  Orchard  and  Garden  Trees,  aa 
Standards,  Dwarfs,  Pyramids,  Espalier,  &c.  The  Laying  out  and  Arranging  different 
kinds  of  Orchards  and  Gardens,  the  selection  of  suitable  varieties  for  different  purposes 
and  localities,  Gathering  and  Preserving  Fruits,  Treatment  of  Diseases,  Destruction  of 
Insects,  Description  and  Uses  of  Implements,  &c.  Illustrated  with  upwards  of  150 
Figures.     By  P.  Barry,  of  the  Mount  Hope  Nurserifis,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

BEMENT'S  (C.  N.)  RABBIT  FANCIER, 60 

A  Treatise  on  the  Breeding,  Rearing,  Feeding  and  General 

Management  of  Rabbits,  with  Remarks  upon  their  Diseases  and  Remedies,  to  which  are 
added  Full  Directions  for  the  Construction  of  Hutches,  Rabbitries,  &c.,  together  with 
Recipes  for  Cooking  and  Dressing  for  the  Table.     Beautifully  illustrated. 

BLAKE'S  (REV.  JOHN  L.)  FARMER  AT  HOME,      -      .      -      -      1  25 

A    Family  Text  Book   for  the    Country  ;  bein<^  a  Cyclopedia 

of  Agricultural  Implements  and  Productions,  and  of  the  more  important  topics  in 
Domestic  Economy,  Science  and  Literature,  adapted  to  Rural  Life.  By  Rev.  John  L. 
Blake,  D.  D. 

BOTJSSINGATrLT'S  (J.  B.)  RURAL  ECONOMY,     -      -      -      -      -      1  26 

Or,  Chemistry  Applied  to  Agriculture  ;  presenting  Distinctly 

and  in  a  Simple  Manner  the  Principles  of  Farm  Management,  the  Preservation  and  Use  of 
Manures,  the  Nutrition  and  Food  of  Animals,  and  the  General  Economy- of  Agriculture. 
The  work  is  the  fruit  of  a  long  life  of  study  and  experiment,  and  its  perusal  will  aid  the 
farmer  greatly  in  obtaining  a  practical  and  scientific  knowledge  of  his  profession. 

BROWNE'S  AMERICAN  BIRD  FANCIER, 25 

The   Breeding,  Rearing,  Feeding,  Management   and  Peculi- 

arities  of  Cage  and  House  Birds.     Illustrated  with  engravings. 

BROWNE'S  AMERICAN  POXTLTRY  YARD, 1  00 

Comprising    the    Origin,    History  and    Description    op    the 

Different  Breeds  of  Domestic  Poultry,  with  Complete  Directions  for  their  Breeding, 
Crossing,  Rearing,  Fattening  and  Preparation  for  Market  j  including  specific  directions 
for  Caponizing  Fowls,  and  for  the  Treatment  of  the  Principal  Disease^  to  which  they  are 
subject,  drawn  from  authentic  sources  and  personal  observation.  Illustrated  with 
numerous  engravings. 

BROWNE'S  (D.  JAY)  FIELD  BOOS  OF  MANURES,    -      -      -      -      1  25 
Or,  American  Muck  Book  ;  Treating  of  the  Nature,  Properties, 

Sources,  History  and  Operations  of  all  the  Principal  Fertilizers  and  Manures  in  Common 
Use,  with  specific  ilircctions  for  their  Preservation  and  Application  to  the  Soil  and  te 
Crops  ;  drawn  from  authentic  sources,  actual  experience  and  personal  observation,  as 
combined  with  the  Leading  Principles  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Agriculture. 

BRIDGEMAN'S  (THOS.)  YOUNG  GARDENER'S  ASSISTANT,    -      -      1  60 

In  Three  Parts  ;  Containing  Catalogues  of  Garden  and  Flower 

Seed,  with  Practical  Directions  under  each  head  for  the  Cultivation  of  Cu  nary  Vege- 
table's  ."Flowers,  Fruit  Trees,  the  Grape  Vine,  &c.  ;  to  which  is  added  a  Calendar  to  each 
part^howing  the  work  necessary  to  be  done  in  the  various  departments  each  month 
of  the  year.    One  volume  octavo. 

WIDGEMAN'S  KITCHEN  GARDENER'S  INSTRUCTOR,  K  Cloth,      60 

"  •'  "  "  Cloth,      60 

AI:!''v(I post  paid  uoon  receipt  of  piice. 


BooJcs  fnihliihed  by  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co. 

BRIDGEMAN'S  FLOEIST'S  GTJIDE,  -      -      -      .  -^       K  Cloth,       60 

'*  '* Cloth,       60 

BBIDGEMAN'S  FKTJIT  CTTLTIVATOB'S  MAJJaAL,     -  >i  Cloth,       50 

"  ««  «  "  .       .  Cloth,       60 

BRECK'S  BOOK  OF  FLQWEES, 1  00 

Lv    WUICH   ARE    DesCRIBKD    ALL  TUE  YaIcICUS   HaRDY  HeRBACEIiUS 
rereuiiials,  Annuals,  Shrubs,  I'laats  and  Ever£roen  Trees,  with  Directions  for  their 
Cultivation. 
BHIST'S  (KOBERT)  AMERICAN  FLOWER  GARDEN  DIRECTORY,       1  24 

CoxTAiNixa  Practical  Directions  for  the  Culture  of  Plants, 

In  the  Flower  Garden,  Hothouse,  Greenhouse,  Rooms  or  I'arior  Wiudows,  for  every 
month  in  the  Year  ;  with  a  Description  of  the  Plants  most  desirable  in  each,  the  natura 
of  the  Soil  and  situation  best  adapted  to  their  Growth,  the  Proper  Season  for  Trans- 
planting,  &c.  ;  with  Instructions  for  erecting  a  Hothouse,  Greenhouse,  and  laying  out 
a  Flower  Garden  ;  the  whole  adapted  to  either.  Large  or  Small  Gardens,  with  Instruc- 
tions for  Preparing  the  Soil,  Propagati'-.^,  Planting,  Pruning,  Training  and  Fruiting  the 
Grape  Vine. 
BUISrS  (ROBERT)  FAMILY  KITCHEN  GARDENER,       -      -      -  75 

Containing    Plain   and   Accurate    Descriptions  of   all  the 

Different  Species  and  Varieties  of  Culinary  Vegetables,  with  their  Botanical,  English, 
French  and  German  names,  alphabetically  arranged,  with  the  Best  Mode  of  Cultivat- 
ing them  in  the  Garden  or  under  Glass  ;  also  Descriptions  and  Character  of  the  most 
Select  Fruits,  their  Management,  Propagation,  &c.  By  Robert  Buist,  author  of  thd 
♦•American  Fiower  Garden  Directory,"  &c. 

CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE  AND  SUGAR-MAKING,       -      -      -      .  25 

Its  History,  Culture  and  Adaptation  to  the  Soil,  ClimatE; 

and  Economy  of  the  United  States,  with  an  Accouut  of  Various  I'rocesses  of  Manu- 
facturing Sugar.  Drawn  from  authentic  sources,  by  Charles  F.  Stansbury,  A.  M.,  lata 
Commissioner  at  the  Exhibition  of  all  Nations  at  London. 

CHORLTON'S  GRAPE^ROWER'S  GUIDE, 60 

Intended   Especially   for   the  American  Climate.      Being  a 

Practical  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Grape  Vine  in  each  department  of  Hot- 
house, Cold  Grapery,  jRetarding  House  and  Out-door  Culture.  With  Plans  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  Requisite  Buildings,  and  giving  the  best  methods  for  Heating  the  same. 
Every  department  being  fully  illustrated.     By  Wiluam  Chorlton. 

COBBETT'S  AMERICAN  GARDENER, 60 

A  Treatise  on  the  Situation,  Soil  and  Layino-out  op  Gardens, 

and  thp  Malgng  and  Managing  of  Hotbeds  and  Greenhouses,  and  on  the  Propagatioa 
and  Cultivation  of  the  several  sorts  of  Vegetables,  Herbs,  Fruits  and  Flowers. 

COTTAGE  AND  FARM  BEE-KEEPER, 60 

A  Practical  Work,  by  a  Country  Curate. 

COLE'S  AMERICAN  FRUIT  BOOK, 60 

Containing  Directions  for  Raising,  Propagating  and  Manao- 

ing  Fruit  Trees,  Shrubs  and  Plants  ;  with  a  Description  of  the  Best  Varieties  of  Fruit, 
InckKling  New  and  Valuable  Kinds. 

COLE'S  AMERICAN  VETERINARIAN,     -------         60 

Co>fTAiNiNa  Diseasp:s  of  Domestic  Animals,  their  Causes,  Symp- 

toms  and  Remedies  ;  with  Rules  for  M jsiormg  ;U)  J  Preserving  Health  by  good  manage- 
ment ;  also  for  Training  and  Breeding. 

DADD'S  AMERICAN  CATTLE  DOCTOR, 1  00 

CoxTAi.NiNa  THE  Necessary   Information  for   Preserving  thb 

HoaltU  and  Ciu'itii?  iho  Dis  -ns'-s  of  Oxen,  Cows,  Sheep  and  Swine,  with  a  (Jreat  Variety 
of  Original  U-eiiHss  and  Valuable  Inlormation  in  reference  to  Farm  and  Dairy  Mana(,'0- 
ment,  whereby  every  Man  can  be  his  own  Cattle  Doctor.  Tlie  principles  taught  in  this 
work  are,  that  all  Medication  shall  bo  subservient  to  Nature — that  all  Medicines  must  be 
•anativo  in  their  ojxjration,  and  administered  with  a  view  of  aiding  the  viUil  powers, 
Instead  of  depressing,  as  heroiofore,  with  the  lancet  or  by  poison.  By  G.  H.  Dado,  M.  i) 
Veterinary  i>ractdioner. 

M  Tiled  pof  paid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


I  BooJcs  published  hj  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co. 

DADD'S  MODEBN  HORSE  DOCTOR, 1  00 

An  American  Book  for  American  Farmers  ;  Containing  Practi- 
cal Obsoivations  on  the  Causes,  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Disease  and  Lameness  of 
Horsus,  embracing  the  Most  Recent  and  Approved  Metliods,  according  to  an  enlightened 
system  of  Veterinary  Practice,  for  the  Preservation  and  Restoration  of  Health.  With 
illustrations. 

DADD'S  ANATOMY  AOT)  PHYSIOLOGY  OF* THE  HORSE,  Plain,    .      2  00 

•*  <♦  "  '*  "  Colored  Plates,    4  00 

With  Anatomical  and  Questional  Illustrations;  Containing, 

also,  a  Series  of  Examinations  on  Equine  Anatomy  aud  Philosophy,  with  Instructions  in 
reference  to  Dissection  and  the  mode  of  making  Anatomical  Preparations  ;  to  which  ia 
added  a  Glossary  of  Veterinary  Technicalities,  Toxicological  Chart,  and  Dictionary  of 
Veterinary  Science. 

DANA'S  MUCK  MAinJAL,  FOR  THE  USE  OF  FARMERS,      -      -      1  00 

A  Treatise  on  the  Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of  Soils 

and  Chemistry  of  Manures  ;  including,  also,  the  subject  of  Composts,  Artificial  Manures 
and  Irrigation.    A  new  edition,  with  a  Chapter  on  Bones  and  Superphosphates. 

DANA'S  PRIZE  ESSAY  ON  MANURES, 25 

Submitted  to  the  Trustees  of  the  Massacsusetts  Society  for 

Promoting  Agriculture,  for  their  Premium.     By  Samuex  H.  Dana. 
DOMESTIC  AND  ORNAMENTAL  POULTRY,  Plain  Plates,    .      .      .      1  00 
"  <*  **'  Colored  Plates,         _       -      2  00 

A  Treatise  on  the  History  and  Management  of  Ornamental 

and  Domestic  Poultry.  By  Rev.  Edmund  Saul  Dixox,  A.  M.,  with  large  additions  by 
J.  J.  Kkrr,  M.  D.  Illustrated  with  sixty -five  Original  Portraits,  engraved  expressly  for 
this  work.    Fourth  edition,  revised. 

DOWNING'S  (A.  J.)  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING,  -      -      -      -      -      3  60 
Revised,  Enlarged  and  Newly  Illustrated,  by  Henry  Win- 

throp  Sargent.  This  Great  Work,  which  has  accomplished  so  much  in  elevating  the 
American  Taste  for  Rural  Improvements,  is  now  rendered  doubly  interesting  and 
valuable  by  the  experience  of  all  the  Prominent  Cultivators  of  Ornamental  Trees  in  the 
United  States,  and  by  the  descriptions  of  American  Places,  Private  Residences,  Central 
Park,  New  York,  Llewellyn  Park,  New  Jersey,  and  a  full  account  of  the  Newer  Decidu- 
ous and  Evergreen  Trees  and  Shrubs.  The  illustrations  of  this  edition  consist  of  seven 
superb  sled  plate  enffravinffs,  by  Smillie,  Hixshelwood,  Duthib  and  others  ;  besides  one 
hundred  engravings  on  toood  arid  stone,  of  the  best  American  Residences  and  Parks,  with 
Portraits  of  many  New  or  Remarkable  Trees  and  Shrubs. 

DOWNING'S  (A.  J.)  RURAL  ESSAYS, /     .      3  00 

On  Horticulture,  Landscape  Gardening,  Rural  Architecture, 

Trees,  Agriculture,  Fruit,  with  his  Letters  from  England.  Edited,  with  a  Memoir  of  the 
Author,  by  George  Wm.  Curtis,  and  a  Letter  to  his  Friends,  by  Frederika  Bremer,  and 
an  elegant  Steel  Portrait  of  the  Author. 

EASTWOOD  (B.)  ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  CRANBERRY,  50 

With  a  Description  op  the  Best  Varieties.     By  B.  Eastwood, 

"  Septimus,"  of  the  New  York  Tribune.     Illustrated. 
ELLIOTT'S  WESTERN  FRUIT  BOOK, 1  25 

A  New  Edition  of  this  Work,  Thoroughly  Revised.  Em- 
bracing all  the  New  and  Valuable  Fruits,  with  the  Latest  Improvements  in  their  Cultiva- 
tion, up  to  January,  1^59.  especially  adapted  to  the  wants  of  Western  Fruit  Growers  ; 
full  of  excellent  illustrations.  By  F.  R,  Eluott,  Pomologist,  lato  of  Cleveland.  Ohio,  now 
of  St.  Louis. 

EVERY  LADY  HER  OWN  FLOWER  GARDENER,     ...      -  60 

Addressed  to  the  Industrious  and  Economical  only  ;  containing 

simple  and  practical  Directions  for  Cultivating  Plants  and  Flo\n  ers  ;  also,  Hint«  for  tha 
Management  of  Flowers  in  Rooms,  with  brief  Botanical  Descriptions  of  Plants  aa^ 
Flowers.    The  whole  in  plain  and  simple  language.    By  Louisa  John'son. 

Mailed  post  wiid  upon  'eceipt  of  price. 


Tiooks  published  hy  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co. 


rABM  DEAINAGE, 1  00 

The  Principles,   Processes  and  Effects  of   Draining  I^nd, 

with  Stouos,  Woo,l,  Drain-plows,  Open  Ditches,  aad  especially  with  Tilos  ;  including 
Tables  of  Kaiufall,  Evaporation,  Filtration,  Excavation,  capacity  of  I'ipes,  cost  and  num> 
bor  to  the  acre.  With  more  than  100  illustrations.  By  the  Hon.  IIe-vry  F.  Frbxqi,  of 
New  Hampshire. 

FESSENDEN'S  (T.  G.)  AMEKICAN  KITCHEH  GAEDENEE,    -      -         60 

Containing  Directions  for  the  Cultivation  of  Vegetables  and 

Carden  Fruits.    Cloth. 

FESSENDEITS  COMPLETE  FAEMEB  AND  AMEEICAN  GAUDENEB,    1  25 

KuRAii  Economist  and  New  American  Gardener  ;    Containing 

a  Coraponilious  Epitome  of  th^  most  Important  Branches  of  Agriculture  and  Rural 
Economy  ;  with  Practical  Directions  on  the  Cultivation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables,  includ- 
iiig  Landscape  and  Ornamental  Gardening.    By  Tnoius  G.  Febsendkn.    2  vols,  in  1 . 

FIELD'S  PEAE  CTJLTUEE, 1  00 

The    Pear    Garden  ;    or,  a    Treatise  on  the  Propagation  and 

Cultivation  of  the  Pear  Tree,  with  Instructions  for  its  Management  from  the  Seedling  to 
the  Bearing  Tree.    By  Thomas  W.  Field. 

FISH  CULTUKE, 100 

A  Treatise  on  the  Artificial  Propagation  of  Fish,  and  the 

Construction  of  Ponds,  with  the  Description  and  Habits  of  such  kinds  of  Fish  as  are  most 
suitable  for  Pisciculture.  By  1'hbodatus  Gabuck,  M.  D.,  Vice-President  of  the  Cleveland 
Academv  of  Nat.  Science. 


A  Practical  Treatise  on  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  ;  Com- 
prising their  NaturalHistory,  Comparative  Nutritive  Value,  Methods  of  Cultivation,  Cut- 
ting, Curing  and  the  Management  of  Grass  Lands.  By  Charles  L.  Flint,  A.  M..  Secre. 
tary  of  the  Mass.  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

GTJENON  ON  MILCH  COWS, -         60 

A  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows,  whereby  the  Quality  and  Quantity  of 

Milk  which  any  Cow  will  give  may  bo  accurately  determined  by  observing  Natural 
Marks  or  External  Indications  alone  ;  the  length  of  time  she  will  continue  to  give  Milk, 
&c.,  &c.  By  M.  Francis  Guenon,  of  Libourue,  France.  Translated  by  Nicholas  P. 
Trist,  Esq.  ;  with  Introduction,  Remarks  and  Observations  or,  the  Cow  and  the  Dairy, 
by  John  S.  Sklvnee.  Illustrated  with  numerous  Engravings  Neatly  done  up  in  paper 
covers,  37  cts. 

ECEEBERT'S  HINTS  TO  HOBSE-EEEPEBS, 125 

Complete  Manual  for  Horsemen  ;  Embracing  : 
How  TO  Breed  a  Horsb.  How  to  Physio  a  Horse. 

How  to  Buy  a  Horse.  (Allopathy  and  Homcbo^athy 

How  to  Break  a  Horsb.  How  to  Groom  a  Horse. 

How  to  U«k  a  Hokse.  How  to  Drive  a  Hor.se. 

How  to  Feed  a  Horse.  How  to  Ride  a  Horse. 

And  Chapters  on  Mules  and  Ponies.  By  the  late  Hkxry  Wiluam  Herbert  (Fraxk 
Forrester)  ;  with  additions,  including  Rarey's  Method  of  Horse  Taxiing,  and  Baucher'i 
SvOTKM  OF  HORSEMANHIUP  ;  also,  giving  directions  for  the  Selection  ami  Caro  ot  Carriages 
and  Harness  of  every  description,  from  the  City  '«  Turn  Out"  to  the  Farmer's  *'  Gear," 
and  a  Biography  of  the  eccentric  Author.    lllustraUd  throughout. 

aooPER's  Doa  and  gun, 50 

A  Few   Loose  Chapters    on  Shooting,   amon^  which   will  be 

found  som.!  Anecdotes  ami  Incidents  ;  also  Instructions  for  Dog  Breaking,  and  interest- 
\ug  letters  from  Sportsmen.    By  A  Bad  Shot. 

STSFS  CHINESE  STJ6AB  CANE, 21 

Containing  its   History,  Mope  of  Culture,  Manufacture  of 

the  Sugar,  &c.  ;  with  Reports  of  its  success  in  diOercnt  parts  of  the  United  State*. 
Mailed  post  paid  iipon  receipt  of  price. 


6  Books  jmhUshcd  hy  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co. 

JOHNSTON'S  (JAMES  F.  W.)  AGRICULTUEAL  CHEMISTBl,        -    "  1  25 

Lectures   on  the  Application  of  Chemistry  and  Geology  to 

Ag-iculture.  Now  Editiuu,  with  an  Appendix,  containing  the  Author's  Experiments  in 
Practical  Agriculture. 

JOHNSTON'S  (J  F.  W.)  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICTTLTTTRAL  CHEM- 

ISTEY  AND  GEOLOGY, 1  00 

With  a  Complete  Analytical  and  Alphabetical  Index,  and  an 

American  Preface.     By  Hon.  Simon  Brown,  Editor  of  the  "  New  England  Farmer." 

OHNSTON'S  (J.  F.  W.)  CATECHISM  OF  AGMCULTTJEAL  CHEM- 
ISTRY AND  GEOLOGY,        25 

By   James    F.  W.  Johnston,  Honorary   Member  of  the  Royal 

Agricultural  Society  of  England,  and  author  of  "  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry 
and  Geology."  With  an  Introduction  by  John  Pitkin  Norton,  M.  A.,  late  Professor  oi' 
Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College.  With  Notes  and  Additions  by  the  Author,  pre- 
pared expressly  for  this  edition,  and  an  Appendix  compiled  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Education  in  Noya  Scotia.     Adapted  to  the  use  of  Schools. 

LANGSTEOTH  (KEV.  L.  L.)  ON  THE  HIVE  AND  HONEY  BEE,    -      1  25 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the   Hive  and   Honey  Bee,  Third 

edition,  enlarged  and  illustrated  with  numerous  engravinga.  This  Work  is,  without  a 
doubt,  the  best  work  on  the  Bee  published  in  any  langua^'e,  whether  we  consider  its 
scientific  accuracy,  the  practical  instructions  it  contains,  or  the  beauty  and  completeness 
of  its  illustrations. 

LEirCHAES'  HOW  TO  BUILD  AND  VENTILATE  HOTHOUSES,     -      1  25 

A   Practical   Treatise   on   the    Construction,  Heating   and 

Ventilation  of  Hothouses,  including  Conservatories,  Greenhoiises,  Graperies  and  other 
kinds  of  Horticultural  Structures  ;  with  Practical  Difections  for  their  Management,  in 
regard  to  Light,  Heat  and  Air.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  By  P.  B. 
Leuchars,  Garden  Architect. 

UEBIG'S  (JUSTUS)  FAMELIAS  LECTUEES  ON  CHEMISTEY,        -         60 

And  its  relation  to  Commerce,  Physiology,  and  Agriculture. 

Edited  by  John  Gardener,  M.  D., 
LmSLEY'S  MOEGAN  HOESES, -      -      -      1  00 

A  Premium  Essay  on  the  Origin,  History,  and  Characteristics 

of  this  remarkable  American  Breed  of  Horses  ;  tracing  the  Pedigree  from  the  original 
Justin  Morgan,  through  the  most  noted  of  his  progeny,  down  to  the  present  time. 
With  numerous  portraits.  To  which  are  added  Hints  for  Breeding,  Breaking  and  Gene- 
ral Use  and  Management  of  Horses,  with  practical  Directions  for  Training  them  for 
Exhibition  at  Agricultural  Fairs.  By  D.  C.  Linsley,  Editor  of  the  American  Stock 
Journal. 

MOOEE'S  EUEAL  HAND  BOOKS, 1  25 

First  Series,  containing  Treatises  on — 

The  Horse,  The  Pests  of  the  Tarm, 

The  Hog,  Domestic  Fowls,  and 

The  Honet  Bee,  The  Cow. 

Second  Series,  containing —  ....  x  25 

EvvRY  I^DY  ni-K  OWN  Flower  Gardener,    Essay  on  Mantres, 
'^LKlIEl»TS  OF  Agriculture,  American  Kitchen  Garpkner, 

Bird  Fanoer,  American  Rose  C(7L3xtu«t. 

Third  Series,  containing — 1  26 

Miles  on  thu  Horse's  Foot,  Vine-Dresser's  ilANtrAi, 

Thk  RABBrr  Fancier,  Bee-Keeper's  Chart, 

Weeks  on  Bees,  Cuemistry  ilADB  East. 

Fourth  Sfrifs,  containing —       -  -        -        -  1  25 

Peksoz  on  the  Vine,  Hooper's  Dog  and  Guk, 

LiKBiG'a  Familiar  Ij:tters,  SiaujuL  Hocsewifk, 

Brow.vb's  Memoirs  of  Indian  Cork. 

Mail.ed  post  paid  upon  receipt  of  pries. 


BooTcs  published  by  C.  M.  Saxton,  Bari^r  &  Co. 


MINEE'S  BEE-KEEPER'S  MANUAL,       ----  --100 

Being   a   Practical  Treatise  on   the  History  and  Domestic 

EcoriDmy  of  the  Honey  Boe,  embracing  a  F'ull  Tlliistration  of  the  whole  subject,  with 
the  Most  Approved  Methods  of  Managing  this  Insect,  through  every  branch  of  its 
Culture  ;  the  result  of  many  years'  experience.  Illustrated  with  many  engravings 
By  T.  B.  Miner. 

MILES  ON  THE  HORSE'S  FOOT  AND  HOW  TO  KEEP  IT  SOUND,        60 

With  Cuts,  Illustrating  the  Anatomy  of  the  Foot,  and  contaiii- 

int,'  valuable  Hints  ou  Shoeing  and  Stable  Management,  in  Health  and  in  Disease.     By 

MILBUSN  ON  THE  COW  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,    -      -      -         2« 
By  M.  M.  MiLBURN,  and  revised  by  H.  D.  Richardson  and  Ambrose 

STE\Ti.vs.     With  illustrations. 

HUNN'S  (B.)  PRACTICAL  LAND  DRAINER, 50 

Being  a  Treatise  on  Draining  Land,  in  which  the  Most  Ap- 
proved Systems  of  Drainage  are  Explained,  and  their  Differences  and  Comparative 
Merits  Discussed  ;  with  full  Directions  for  the  Cutting  and  Making  of  Drains,  with 
Remarks  upon  the  various  materials  of  which  they  may  be  constructed.  With  many 
illustrations.     By  B.  Mon.n,  landscape  Gardener. 

NASHB  (J.  A.)  PROGRESSIVE  FARMER, 60 

A  Scientific  Treatise  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  the  Ge- 

ology  of  Agriculture,  on  Plants  and  Animals,  Manures  and  Soils,  applied  to  Practical 
Agriculture  ;  with  a  Catechism  of  Scieutilic  and  Practical  Agriculture.     By  J.  A.  NjlSH. 

NEILL'S  PRACTICAL  FRUIT,  FLOWER  AND  KITCHEN  GARDEN- 
ER'S COMPANION, 1  00 

With  a  Calendar.     By  Patrick  Neill,  Secretary  of  the  Royal 

Caledonian  Horticultural  Society.  Adapted  to  the  United  States  from  the  fourth 
edition,  revised  and  improved  by  the  Author.  Edited  by  G.  Emerson,  M.  D.,  Editor  of 
'  The  American  Farmer's  Encyclopedia."  With  Notes  and  Additions  by  R,  G'  Pabdkb, 
author  of  "  Manual  of  the  Strawberry  Culture."    With  illustrations. 

NORTON'S  (JOHN  P.)  ELEMENTS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  AGRICULTURE,        60 

Or,  the  Connection  betwekn  Science  and  the  Art  of  Practical 

Farmmg.  Prize  Essay  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Sf)ciety.  By  John  P.  Nor- 
ton, M.  A.,  Professor  of  Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College.  Adapted  to  the  use  of 
ScJioola. 

OLCOTT'S  SORGHO  AND  IMPHEE,  THE  CHINESE  AND  AFRICAN 

SUGAR  CANES, 100 

A  Complete  Treatise  upon  their  Origin  and  Varieties,  Culture 

and  Uses,  their  value  as  a  Forage  Crop,  and  l)irections  for  making  Sugar,  Molasses, 
Alcohol,  Sparkling  and  Still  Wines,  Boer,  Cider,  Vinegar,  Paper,  Starch  and  Dye  Stuffs. 
Fully  illustrated  with  Drawings  of  Approved  Machinery  ;  with  an  Appendix  byLKONARD 
Wray,  of  Caffraria,  and  a  Description  of  his  Patented  Process  of  Crystallizing  the  Juici 
of  the  Imphee  ;  with  the  latest  American  Experiments.     By  Hknry  S.  Olc?ott. 

PARDEE  (R.  0.)  ON  STRAWBERRY  CULTURE, 60 

A  Complete  Manual  for  the  Cultivation  of  the  Strawberry  j 

with  a  Description  of  the  li«'St  Varieties. 

Al?o  notices  of  the  Raspberry,  Blackberry,  Currant,  Gooseberry  and  Grape;  with 
Iiiieitions  for  their  Cultivation,  and  the  Selection  of  the  Best  Varieties.  *'  Every  process 
here  recommended  lias  been  proved,  the  plans  of  others  tried,  and  the  result  is  here 
given."  With  a  Valuable  Appendix,  containing  the  observations  and  experience  of  some 
«.(  tin-  inepi  succe.-.vf.il  cultivators  of  these  fruits  in  onr  country. 

PEDDERS'    JAMES)  FARMERS'  LAND  MEASURER,  -      -      -      -         5C 

Ok   Pockct  (^'ompa.mon  ;    Sliowiiii^  at  one  view  the  Contents  of 
I  >  !  'ii:id,  fr  )ra  DiirveuBiOHS  taken  in  Yards.     With  a  Set  of  Useful  Agriculturai 


v.. 


Jllmled  post  paid  upon  receipt  of  pria. 


Books  pv^isked  hy  C.  M.  Saxton,  Baricer  &;  Co. 


PERSOZ'  CTTLTUIIE  OF  THE  YTNE, 23 

A  New^  Process  for  the  (/'ulture  of  the  Vine,  by  Persoz,  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Faculty  of  Soi  vices  of  sir.is;).*  i  j^  ;  Directing  Profijssor  of  the  School  of  Phar- 
macy of  the  same  city.    Tiausiated  by  J.  O'C.  Barclay,  Surgeon  U.  S.  N. 

PHELPS'  BEE  KEEPEE'S  CHART, 28 

Being  a  Brief  Practicat.  Treatise  ox  the  Instinct,  Habits  and 

Management  of  the  Honey  Bee,  in  all  its  various  branches,  the  result  of  many  years' 
practical  experience,  whereby  the  author  has  been  enabled  to  divest  the  subject  of 
much  that  h:u5  been  considered  mysterious  and  difflcuJ*.  to  overcome,  and  render  it 
more  sure,  proQtable  and  interesting  to  every  one,  than  it  has  heretofore  been.  By  E. 
W.  Phelps. 

QTTINBY'S  3SCYSTEEIES  OF  BEE-KEEPING  EXPLAINED,        -      -      1  00 

Being  a  Complete  Analysis  of  the  Whole  Subject,  Consisting 

of  the  Natural  History  of  Bees  ;  Directions  for  obtaining  the  Greatest  Amount  of  Pure 
Surplus  Honey  with  the  least  possible  expense  ;  Remedies  for  Losses  Given,  and  tiie 
Science  of  Luck  fully  illustrated  ;  the  result  of  more  than  twenty  years'  experience  in 
extensive  Apiaries.    By  M.Qitimjy. 

RANDALL'S  (H.  S.)  SHSEP  HUSBANDRY, 1  25 

With  an  Account  of  the  Different  Breeds,  and  general  direc- 
tions in  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Jlanagement,  Breeding  and  the  Treatment  of 
Diseases,  with  Portraits  and  other  engravings.     By  HE>fRY  S.  Raxdaix. 

REEMELIN'S  (CI1.IS.)  VINE  DRESSER'S  MANUAL,        -      -      -  60 

An   Illustrated    Treatise  on  Vineyards  and   Wine-Making, 

containing  full  Instructions  as  to  I>ocation  and  Soil,  Preparation  of  Ground,  Selection  and 
Propagation  of  Vines,  the  Treatment  of  Young  Vineyards,  Trimming  and  Training  the 
Vines,  Manures  and  the  Making  of  Wine. 

RICHARDSON  ON  HOGS, 25 

Their  Origin,  Varieties  and  Management,  with  a  View  to  Profit 

and  Treatment  under  Disease  ;  also,  plain  Directions  relative  to  the  Most  Approved 
Modes  T)f  Preserving  their  Flesh.  By  H.  D.  Richardson,  author  of  "  The  Hive  and  the 
Honey  Bee,"  &c.,  &c.     With  illustrations. 

RICHARDSON  ON  THE  HIVE  AND  THE  HONEY  BEE,  -      -      -         25 

With  Plain  Directions  for  Obtaining  a  Considerable  Annual 

Income  from  this  branch  of  Rural  Economy  ;  also,  an  Account  of  the  Diseases  of  Bees 
and  their  Remedies,  and  Remarks  as  to  their  Enemies,  and  the  best  mode  of  protecting 
the  Hives  from  their  attacks.     By  H.  D.  Richardson.     With  illustrations. 

RICHARDSON  ON  DOMESTIC  FOWLS, 25 

Their    Natural    History,   Breeding,  Rearing,  and  Generai 

Manag.:ni  -lit.     P.y  11.  D.  Richardson.     With  illustrations. 

RICHARDSON  ON  THE  HORSE, 25^ 

Their  Origin  and  Varieties  ;  with  Plain  Directions  as  to  the 

Breeding,  Rearing  and  General  Management,  with  Instructions  as  to  the  Treatment  of 
Disease.    Handsomely  illustrated.     By  H.  D.  Richardson. 

RICHARDSON  ON  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM,        -      -      -      .         25 

AVith    Instructions  for  their  Extirpation  ;  being  a  Manual  of 

Plain  Directions  for  the  Certain  Destruction  of  every  description  of  Vermin.  With 
numerous  illustrations  on  Wo(jd. 

RICHARDSON  ON  DOGS ;  thkfh.  ORIGIN  AND  VAKTETrES,       -         50 

Directions  as  to  their  General  Management.     With  nnmorous 

Original  Anecdotes.    Also,  ajnipiote  Instructions  as  to  Treatment  under  Disease.    By  H. 
D.  Richardson.     Illustrated  with  numerous  woo<l  engravings. 
Tills  is  not  only  a  cheap,  but  one  of  the  best  works  ever  published  on  the  Dog. 

SCHENCK'S  GARDENER'S  TEXT  BOOK, 50 

Containing  Directions  for  the  Formation  and  Management 

of  tb«  Kitohen  Garden,  the  Culture  and  Use  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Medicinal  Her&#- 
Mailed  post  paid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


Jljoks  published  by  C.  M.  Saxtox,  Barker  &  Co. 


SHEPHERD'S  OWN  BOOK, 2  eO 

With  an  AccoUiNT  of  the  Different  Bkeeds,  Diseases  and  Mxi- 

agemeut  ofShuop,  and  Goiierul  Directions  iu  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Managemt-it, 
Breeding  and  the  Treatment  of  Diseases  ;  with  ilhistrative  engravings  by  Yooat>  it 
Ra.vdaix  ;  tanbracing  Skinner's  Notes  on  the  Breed  and  Management  of  Sheep  iu  Mie 
United  States,  and  on  the  Culture  of  Fine  Wool. 

BTEWARrS  STABLE  BOOK, 1  GO 

A  Treatise  on  the  IVIanagement  of   Horses,  in  Relation  to 

stabling,  (jirm)ming,  Feeding,  Watering  and  Working,  Construction  of  Stables,  Ventila- 
tion, Appendages  of  Stables,  Management  of  the  Feet,  and  of  Diseased  and  Itefectiva 
Hors.'S.  By  Joh.v  Stewart,  Veterinary  Surgeon.  With  Notes  a»d  Additions,  adapting 
it  to  American  Food  and  Climate.     By  A.  B.  Allk.v,  Editor  of  the  American  Agriculturist. 

STKAY  LEAVES  FBOM  THE  BOOK  OP  NATUEE,     ....      1  00 
By   M.  Schele    De  Verb,   of  the   University  of  Yirginia. 

CoNTE.\TS  :  I.  Only  a  Pebble. 

n.  Nature  in  Monox. 
m.  The  Oceax  axd  rrs  Lira. 
rV.  A  Chat  about  Plants. 
V.  Younger  Years  op  a  Plami; 
VI.  Later  Years  of  a  Plant. 
Vn.  Plant  Mummies. 
Vin.  Unknown  Tongues. 
IX.  A  Trip  to  the  Moon. 

STEPHENS'  (HENEY)  BOOK  OF  THE  FAEM, 4  00 

A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Farmer,  Steward,  Plowman,  Oattle- 

man, Shepherd,  Field  Worker  and  Dairy  Maid.  By  Henry  Steph>:ns.  With  Four  Hun- 
dred and  Fifty  illustrations  ;  to  which  are  added  Explanatory  Notes,  Remarks,  &c.,  by 
J.  S.  Skinner.    Really  one  of  the  best  books  a  farmer  can  possess. 

BKILLFQL  HOUSEWIFE, 50 

Or  Complete  Guide  to  Domestic  Cookery,  Tastf^  Comfort,  and 

Economy,  embracing  65^  Recipes  pertaining  to  Household  Duties,  ttie  Care  of  Health, 
Gardening,  Birds,  Education  of  C'liildron,  kc,  &c.     By  Mrs.  L.  G.  Aatax. 

SKINNEB'S.  ELEMENTS  OF  AGBICULTUBE, 25 

Adapted  to  the  Use  of  American  Farmers.     By  F.  G.  Skinner 

SMITH'S   (C.   H.  J.)   LANDSCAPE    GARDENING,   PARKS   AND 

PLEASUEE  GEOUNDS, 1  25 

With  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public 

Parks  and  Gardens.  By  Charles  H.  J.  Smith,  Landscape  Gardener  and  Garden  Archi 
tect.    With  Notes  and  Additions  by  Lewis  F.  Allen,  author  of"  Rural  Architecture." 

THAEE'S  (.ALBERT  B.)  AGRICULTURE, 200 

The  Principles  of  Agriculture,  by  Albert  D.  Thaer  ;  Trans- 
lated by  WiLUAM  Shaw  and  Cuthbert  W.  Johnson,  Esq.,  F.  R.  S.  W-th.  a  Memoir  of 
the  Author.    1  vol.  8vo. 

Tliis  work  is  regarded,  by  those  who  are  competent  to  judge,  as  one  of  the  mogt 
yaluable  works  that  has  ever  appeared  on  the  subject  of  Agriculture.  At  the  same  timo 
that  it  is  eminently  practical,  it  is  philosophical,  and,  even  to  the  general  reader,  re- 
markably entertaining. 

THOMAS'  (J.  J.)  FARM  IMPLEMENTS, 1  00 

And  tiik  Pri.vciples  of  their  Construction  and  Use  ;  an  Ei.e 

mentary  and  famiilai*  Treatise  on  Mechanics  and  Natural  Philosophy,  as  applied  to  the 
ordinary  practices  of  Agriculture.     With  tiOO  illustrations. 

THOMPSON  (R.  D.)  ON  THE  FOOD  OF  ANIMALS,     -      -      -  75 

Experimental  Kesearches  on  the  Food  of  Animals  and  thi 

Fattening  of  Cattle  ;  with  Remarks  on  the  Food  of  Man.  Based  upon  Experiments  under* 
taken  by  order  of  the  British  Government,  by  Robert  Dundas  'ISioiipson.  M.  D. 
Lecturer  on  Practical  Chemistrf,  University  of  Glasgow. 

Malted  post  paid  upon  receipt  qf  priet. 


1^  jBooTcs  pntlishpcJ  hy  C.   M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co. 


THE  ROSE  CTJLTTTKlST, 50 

Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Propagation,  CuLnvATiON, 

and  Management  of  the  Rose  in  all  seasons  ;  with  a  List  of  Choict>  and  Approved  Vane- 
ties,  adapted  to  the  Climate  of  the  United  States  ;  to  which  is  added  full  du-eclious  for 
the  Treatment  of  the  Dahlia.    Illustrated  by  engravings. 


TOPHAM'S  CHEMGCSTEY  MADE  EASY, 25 

For  the  Use  op  i  armers.     By  J.  Topham. 

TURNEE'S  COTTON  PLANTER'S  MANUAL,  ------      l  00 

Being  a  Compilation  op  Facts  prom  the  Best  Authorities  on 

the  Culture  of  Cotton,  its  Natural  History,  Chemical  Analysis,  Trade  and  Consumption, 
and  embracing  a  History  of  Cotton  and  the  Cotton  Gin.     By  J.  A.  Turner. 

WARDER'S  (J.  A.)  HEDGES  AND  EVERGREENS,      -      -      -      -      1  00 

A  Complete  Manual  por  the  Cultivation,  Pruning  and  Man- 

agement  of  ail  Plants  suitable  for  American  Hedging,  especially  the  Madura  or  Osage 
Orange.  Fully  illustrated  with  engraving  of  plants,  implements  and  processes.  To 
which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Evergreens,  v,>v.r  diCferent  Varieties,  their  propagation, 
transplanting  and  Culture  in  the  United  States 

WARING'S  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICXJLTTTRiS, 75 

A  Book  por  Young  Farmers,  with  Questions  for  the  use  of 

■^  Schools. 

WEEKS  (JOHN  M.)  ON  BEES -A  MANUAL, 50 

Or,  an  Easy  Method  of  Managing  Bees  in  the  most  profit- 

able  manner  to  their  Owner  ;  with  Infallible  Rules  to  Prevent  their  Destruction  by  the 
Moth.     With  an  Appendix,  by  Wooster  A.  Fl.4xders. 

WHITE'S  (W.  N.)  GARDENING  FOR  THE  SOUTH,    -      -      -      -      1  25 

Or,  the  Kitchen  and  Fruit  Garden,  with  the  Best  J\Iethods 

for  their  Cultivation  ;  together  with  Hints  upon  l^andscape  and  Flower  Gardening  ;  con- 
taining Modes  of  Culture  and  Descriptions  of  the  Species  and  Varieties  of  the  Culinary 
Vegetables,  Fruit  Trees  and  Fruits,  and  a  Select  List  of  Ornamental  Trees  and  Plants, 
Adaoted  to  the  States  of  the  Union  South  of  Pennsylvania,  with  Gardening  Calendars  for 
the  same.     By  Wm.  N.  White,  of  Athens,  Georgia. 

YOUATT  AND  MARTIN  ON  CATTLE, 1  25 

Being  a  Treatise  on  their  Breeds,  Management,  and  Diseases, 

comprising  a  Full  History  of  the  Various  Races  ;  their  Origin,  Breeding  and  Merits  ; 
their  capacity  for  B;>ef  and  Milk.  By  W.  Yov atv  and  W.  C.  1..  Martin.  The  whole  form- 
ing a  Complete  Guide  for  the  Farmer,  the  Amateur  and  the  Veterinary  Surgeon ,  with  lOQ 
illustrations.     Elited  by  Ambrose  Stevens. 

YOUATT  ON  THE  HORSE, 1  25 

YoUATT  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  AND  DiSIEASES  OF  THE  HoRSE,  with 
their  Remelies  ;  also,  Practical  Rules  for  Buyers,  Breeders,  Smiths,  &c.  Edited  by  W, 
C.  Spooner,  M.R.C.V.S.  With  an  Account  of  the  Breeds  in  the  United  States,  by  Henrt 
S.  Randall. 

YOUATT  ON  SHEEP,     - -      -      -         75 

Their  Breed,  Management  and  Diseases,  with  Illustrative  En- 
gravings ;  to  which  are  added  Remarks  on  the  Breeds  and  Management  of  Sheep  in  the 
United  States,  and  on  the  Culture  of  Fine  Wool  in  Silesia.     By  Wm.  Youatt. 

YOUATT  AND  MARTIN  ON  THE  HOG, 75 

A  Treatise  on  the  Breeds,  Management,  and  Medical  Treat- 

ment  of  Swine,  with  Directions  for  Salting  Pork  and  Curing  Bacon  and  Haras.  By  Wm. 
YoDATT,  V.  S.,  and  W.  C  L.  Martlv.  Edited  by  Ambrose  Stevens.  Illrstrated  with 
engraviags  drawn  from  life. 

Mailed  post  paid  upon  rtceipt  of  price. 


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